The Birth of Difference: Early Human Migrations and Divergence

When Samuel Johnson famously remarked in 1777 that one who tires of London tires of life itself, he captured the spirit of a city—and a civilization—that had become the epicenter of global commerce and culture. But the roots of Western dominance stretch far deeper than 18th-century London. To understand why the West rose to prominence, we must journey back to humanity’s earliest days, when geography and climate first began shaping the divergent paths of East and West.

Around 1.8 million years ago, a new species of hominin—Homo erectus—emerged in Africa and began migrating across the Old World. These early humans carried simple stone tools, but as they spread, a curious pattern emerged. In Africa, Europe, and Southwest Asia, archaeologists found advanced Acheulean hand axes, while in East and Southeast Asia, only cruder Oldowan-style tools appeared. This division, known as the Movius Line, suggested an early technological gap between regions.

The Movius Line: A False Divide?

For decades, scholars debated whether the Movius Line represented a true technological divide or simply reflected differences in available resources. One compelling theory suggests that East Asian hominins abandoned hand axes not because they were less advanced, but because bamboo—a versatile material that rarely survives in the archaeological record—replaced stone for many tools. Evidence from China’s Bose Basin supports this: after a meteor strike destroyed local bamboo forests around 800,000 years ago, humans briefly manufactured hand axes before reverting to bamboo when vegetation regrew.

This challenges the notion of an innate Western technological superiority. Rather than a fundamental cognitive difference, early humans adapted their tools to local conditions. The Movius Line may reflect environmental constraints, not cultural or biological inferiority.

The Rise of Regional Variants: Neanderthals and Peking Man

As hominins adapted to diverse climates, distinct regional variants emerged. In Europe and West Asia, Homo heidelbergensis evolved into the robust, large-brained Neanderthals, while in East Asia, Homo erectus persisted as Peking Man.

Neanderthals, with their barrel chests and powerful builds, were superbly adapted to Ice Age Europe. They crafted sophisticated tools, buried their dead with possible ritualistic care, and even showed signs of compassion—caring for injured group members. Peking Man, by contrast, left fewer signs of cultural complexity. Their tools remained simple, and evidence of symbolic behavior is scarce.

For proponents of long-term determinism, this seemed to confirm Western superiority: perhaps modern Europeans inherited Neanderthal ingenuity, while Asians descended from more “primitive” stock. But genetics would soon upend this narrative.

The African Revolution: Homo sapiens and the Erasure of Difference

Around 70,000 years ago, a new wave of migrants—anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens)—left Africa. These newcomers possessed something unprecedented: symbolic thought. They crafted jewelry, painted caves, and developed complex tools. Within millennia, they replaced all other hominin species, from Neanderthals in Europe to Homo erectus in Asia.

Genetic studies confirm that all living humans descend from this African exodus. There was no interbreeding with Neanderthals or Peking Man—meaning any biological differences between early East and West were erased. As archaeologist Ian Morris notes, “We are all Africans under the skin.”

The Illusion of Western Exceptionalism

For generations, Europe’s stunning Ice Age cave art—like the bison of Altamira—was held up as proof of innate Western creativity. But this view ignores preservation bias. In regions without deep limestone caves, art took other forms: portable figurines in Siberia, engraved ostrich eggs in Africa, and rock paintings in Australia.

The real story is not Western superiority, but human adaptability. Faced with harsh climates, early humans innovated in different ways. Europe’s cave art flourished because its geography allowed preservation, not because its people were uniquely gifted.

Conclusion: The Level Playing Field

By the end of the last Ice Age, the biological and cultural differences that once divided East and West had vanished. Modern humans everywhere shared the same restless, inventive minds. The stage was set for the next act in human history—one where geography, not genetics, would determine which regions rose to dominance.

The West’s eventual ascendancy was not preordained by ancient superiority but shaped by later developments. As we’ll explore in the next chapter, the real “great divergence” began not in the Paleolithic, but with the dawn of agriculture and the uneven hand of climate change.