A City Under Water

In the early 19th century, China’s Yellow River frequently overflowed its banks, creating catastrophic floods that tested both engineering capabilities and governmental competence. The river’s nickname “China’s Sorrow” proved tragically accurate during the 1841 flood that submerged Kaifeng, one of China’s ancient capitals. This disaster occurred during the declining years of the Qing Dynasty, when the empire faced both internal challenges and external pressures from Western powers. Against this backdrop of national crisis, the flood represented not just a natural disaster but a test of imperial governance.

The morning after his arrival in the region, Lin Zexu traveled by palanquin toward the stricken city. As a respected official known for his integrity and administrative competence, Lin had been dispatched to assess the damage and assist in recovery efforts. His journey to Kaifeng would reveal not just the physical destruction wrought by the floodwaters, but the remarkable resilience of both the city’s inhabitants and its leadership.

The Approach to Kaifeng

Upon reaching the northern protective embankment, Lin Zexu disembarked from his palanquin and climbed the structure on foot. The view from the top revealed a transformed landscape. The floodwaters had receded from the western, northern, and eastern city gates, but the river continued to flow in two distinct branches around the city. One branch rushed southward several dozen yards beyond the western wall, while the other flowed eastward along the northern wall before turning south at the eastern embankment. These two streams converged southeast of the city, leaving exposed several miles of dried land along the eastern and southern approaches.

Lin’s original plan to transfer to a small boat for the final approach to Kaifeng proved unnecessary. The newly stabilized river course had exposed extensive dried lands between the northern embankment and the city’s northern riverbank. Workers had already constructed a road using fresh soil and erected a floating bridge across the river. His bearers noted the remaining five or six li distance to Kaifeng and insisted on carrying him the entire way, since boat travel was no longer required.

Entering the Walled City

Arriving at Kaifeng’s northern gate, Lin found the entrance still blocked by accumulated mud, bricks, and stones. Entry to the city required ascending an earthen slope constructed beside the sealed gate. Once atop the massive city walls, Lin witnessed a city in the midst of recovery. Workers had cleared silt from along the fortifications, restoring access to some streets. The city hummed with reconstruction activity, evidence of the determined effort to restore normalcy after the devastating inundation.

The巡抚衙门 or Governor’s Office, located near the western gate, sat in a low-lying area that had suffered severe silting. The route from the northern gate remained impassable, forcing Lin to proceed along the city wall toward the western entrance. This detour provided an unexpected opportunity to observe the makeshift economy that had emerged atop the fortifications.

Commerce on the Fortifications

The city walls had transformed into a vibrant marketplace, with merchants selling daily necessities, clothing, shoes, vegetables, and grain. Prices remained exorbitant in the aftermath of the disaster, reflecting both scarcity and demand. The western section had endured the most severe flooding, requiring the largest cleanup operation and consequently attracting numerous laborers and soldiers. Entrepreneurs had capitalized on this concentration of workers by establishing food and drink establishments along the battlements, with colorful names like “Union Dragon Inn,” “Calm Waves Residence,” and “Subdued Flood Tavern.”

Beyond the walls, on dried stretches of land cleared of silt, entertainers had already begun performing. Stages hosted theatrical productions while storytellers gathered audiences around makeshift platforms. This resurgence of cultural activity amid the devastation spoke to the human capacity to find normalcy even in the most challenging circumstances.

The Unclaimed Coffins

Descending the western wall via an earthen ramp, Lin noticed dozens of posted notices seeking identification of coffins. These placards provided detailed descriptions of the caskets—wood type, color, style, inscriptions or carvings—and their contents: whether male or female, approximate age, clothing, and even official headgear or embroidered ceremonial robes. Curious about this phenomenon, Lin inquired with an elderly local gentleman.

The elder explained that before the flood, the five city gates’ surrounding temples had served as temporary repositories for coffins, with additional caskets stored in brick structures near the monasteries. Most contained remains of people from other provinces—officials, mercenaries, or merchants—who had died in Kaifeng awaiting eventual return to their home regions for burial.

The flood had scattered these coffins throughout the landscape. Some had been caught by temple structures or trees, others rested precariously on rooftops, while many lay partially buried in silt, with only a corner visible. Of the hundreds recovered, less than one or two percent had been claimed by relatives. As workers cleared silt from outside the city, they continued to discover additional caskets, which the prefectural government had systematically relocated to designated areas, cataloged, and recorded to facilitate future identification.

Good Governance in Crisis

Upon learning that Prefect Zou had organized this respectful treatment of the unclaimed dead, Lin praised the official’s compassionate leadership. The elderly man enthusiastically agreed, adding that heaven had blessed Kaifeng with two exceptional officials: Prefect Zou and Governor Niu. The elder reported that the emperor had promoted Governor Niu to the position of Viceroy of Liangjiang with orders to confront the British threat along the coast. However, Kaifeng’s citizens had protested this reassignment, gathering outside the governor’s office to prevent his departure.

The elderly local proved so enthusiastic in his narration that he personally guided Lin to the governor’s compound, where they found the entrance indeed blocked by citizens—some standing, others squatting, with about a dozen elders seated on stools directly before the doorway.

The People’s Protest

When Lin approached the entrance, guards stopped him, inquiring about his identity and purpose. They explained that the governor was handling official transitions and could not receive visitors. Lin identified himself and mentioned his prearranged meeting with Governor Niu. Upon hearing Lin’s name, the guards immediately became deferential, promising to announce his arrival.

The gathered citizens, overhearing the exchange, quickly surrounded Lin. One elder pleaded, “Commissioner Lin, everyone knows you’re a good and honest official. Please help us persuade Governor Niu not to abandon us.”

Others added their voices: “Governor Niu is a good official. When Kaifeng flooded, he remained on the city walls for over twenty days. Without him, Kaifeng would have been destroyed. Without Governor Niu, the people of Kaifeng would have starved.”

The crowd’s unanimous praise highlighted the governor’s exceptional leadership during the crisis. Another concern emerged from their comments: “He should at least stay until the breach is fully repaired. If Governor Niu leaves, outside officials might make arbitrary decisions to abandon Kaifeng entirely. Then we would lose our homes completely. We hear the Imperial Commissioner still hesitates, uncertain about the city’s future. A new River Governor will arrive soon. If he resembles that Wen fellow, gossiping recklessly before the emperor and urging abandonment of Kaifeng, we’ll be ruined. We cannot let Governor Niu leave—only he cares whether we live or die.”

Lin’s Diplomatic Response

Lin responded to the concerned citizens with both empathy and realism: “Respected elders, I will certainly convey your words to Governor Niu. However, the emperor has issued an edict assigning him to Liangjiang. He cannot disobey a direct imperial command. Moreover, the British threat along the coast requires capable officials like Governor Niu to confront it.”

An elderly protester countered, “Commissioner Lin, they can send someone else to fight the British.” This exchange revealed the tension between local needs and national priorities during a period when China faced multiple crises simultaneously.

Historical Context and Significance

The flood of 1841 represented more than just another Yellow River overflow—it occurred during a pivotal moment in Chinese history. The First Opium War was underway, challenging Qing sovereignty and revealing military vulnerabilities. Lin Zexu himself had recently been removed as Imperial Commissioner in Canton following confrontations with British traders, making his assignment to Kaifeng both a rehabilitation and testament to his administrative talents.

Governor Niu’s popularity reflected the Confucian ideal of the benevolent official who prioritizes his people’s welfare. His reported twenty-plus days on the city walls during the emergency embodied the scholar-official’s commitment to hands-on governance. The citizens’ protest against his reassignment, while technically challenging imperial authority, demonstrated the deep bond that could form between effective administrators and those they governed.

The cataloging of unclaimed coffins by Prefect Zou illustrated another Confucian virtue: respect for ancestors and proper ritual observance. Even amidst disaster, maintaining cultural traditions regarding death demonstrated societal resilience and the preservation of core values.

Engineering and Urban Recovery

The flood recovery efforts in Kaifeng showcased traditional Chinese engineering capabilities. The systematic clearing of silt, construction of new roads, establishment of floating bridges, and gradual restoration of urban infrastructure reflected sophisticated organizational skills and technical knowledge. The rapid emergence of commercial activity on the city walls demonstrated how urban spaces could adapt to extraordinary circumstances while maintaining economic functions.

The environmental challenges posed by the Yellow River had shaped Chinese civilization for millennia, prompting the development of complex water management systems and bureaucratic mechanisms for disaster response. The 1841 Kaifeng flood represented both a continuation of these historical challenges and a test of Qing administrative capabilities during a period of increasing pressure.

Legacy and Reflection

Lin Zexu’s encounter with Kaifeng’s flood recovery efforts offers modern readers insights into late Qing governance, community resilience, and the complex relationship between local needs and national priorities. The citizens’ determination to rebuild their city, coupled with their appreciation for effective leadership, reveals how ordinary people navigated the intersection of natural disaster and bureaucratic administration.

The episode also highlights the personal qualities valued in Chinese officials—dedication, accessibility, and compassion—as exemplified by Governor Niu’s continuous presence on the city walls during the emergency. Lin’s own career, marked by both successes and setbacks, reflected the challenges facing Qing officials attempting to reform governance while confronting internal and external threats.

Ultimately, the story of Kaifeng’s flood recovery represents a microcosm of broader historical currents—environmental challenges, administrative responses, community adaptation, and the enduring human capacity to rebuild after catastrophe. These themes resonate across centuries, reminding us that disaster response reveals fundamental aspects of both governance and human nature.