The Roots of Suspicion: A Peasant Emperor’s Distrust

Zhu Yuanzhang, the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty (r. 1368–1398), was unlike any ruler China had seen before. A former peasant, monk, and rebel, his ascent to power was improbable—and it left him deeply suspicious of the scholar-officials who traditionally governed the empire. Having witnessed the corruption of the Yuan Dynasty firsthand, he believed bureaucrats were inherently untrustworthy. This worldview set the stage for one of history’s most brutal anti-corruption campaigns.

The Guo Xian Case (1385) became the catalyst. When Guo Xian, a mid-ranking Ministry of Revenue official, was exposed for embezzling state grain reserves, Zhu saw not an isolated crime but a systemic rot. His response was characteristically extreme: a nationwide dragnet to trace every tael of stolen silver, from Beijing down to village tax collectors.

The Machinery of Terror: Wu Yong and the Purge

Zhu appointed Wu Yong, a ruthless investigator, to lead the “asset recovery” campaign. What followed was a chilling domino effect:
– Central Ministries: Senior officials were executed first.
– Provincial Level: Each of the 12 Provincial Administration Commissions (布政使司) was ordered to repay “missing” funds.
– Local Governments: Prefects, magistrates, and even wealthy commoners were squeezed for restitution.

When peasants revolted against extortion, Wu shifted targets: local elites were accused of bribing officials and stripped of their wealth. Within months, 30,000+ people were implicated. The executions grew grotesque—Zhu revived medieval tortures like flaying, dismemberment, and castration to “make an example” of the guilty.

The Emperor’s Dilemma: When the Killing Went Too Far

Initially pleased, Zhu grew uneasy as the death toll mounted. His concern wasn’t moral—he famously despised officials—but practical: Were the institutions flawed, or was human nature irredeemably corrupt?

When the Six Ministries warned that continuing the purge would leave the government empty, Zhu relented. The final toll:
– Central Government: Only 25 senior officials remained.
– Economic Impact: Wealthy households bankrupted; tax systems reformed (e.g., replacing simple numerals with complex characters like “壹” to prevent forgery).
– Psychological Terror: Officials reportedly prayed daily to survive court audiences.

The Dark Legacy: Paranoia as Statecraft

Zhu’s purges didn’t end with Guo Xian. The Lin Xian Case (1386), a bizarre alleged conspiracy involving Japanese mercenaries and the disgraced chancellor Hu Weiyong, claimed 10,000 more lives. By the 1390s, even Zhu’s childhood friend Li Shanchang was executed in a final wave of suspicion.

Key outcomes:
1. Centralization of Power: The abolition of the Chancellor’s post left Zhu as absolute ruler.
2. Cultural Trauma: The Ming bureaucracy operated in perpetual fear, stifling innovation.
3. Historical Paradox: Zhu’s anti-corruption zeal birthed a system where hidden bribes (陋规) became endemic to avoid his scrutiny.

Conclusion: The Tyrant’s Shadow

Zhu Yuanzhang’s purges were a product of his unique psychology—a peasant’s rage against privilege combined with a dictator’s obsession with control. While they temporarily cleansed the government, they also crippled the Ming’s administrative vitality. Centuries later, his methods echo in modern anti-corruption campaigns, proving that the tension between accountability and tyranny remains unresolved.

As Zhu once advised his heir: “Fear, not love, is the foundation of power.” In enforcing that principle, he reshaped Chinese governance—but at a cost historians still reckon with today.