The Collapse of Empires and the Seeds of Conflict
The Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) emerged from the ruins of World War I and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Following the Ottoman defeat in 1918, the victorious Allied powers sought to dismantle the empire through the Treaty of Sèvres (1920), which granted Greece significant territorial concessions in Western Anatolia, including the strategic port city of Smyrna (modern-day İzmir). Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, a staunch advocate of the Megali Idea (the “Great Idea” of restoring Byzantine-era Greek dominance in Anatolia), saw this as an opportunity to reclaim historic Greek lands.
Meanwhile, in the heart of Anatolia, a Turkish nationalist movement was gaining momentum under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk). Rejecting the humiliating terms of Sèvres, Kemal rallied disaffected Ottoman officers, war veterans, and local militias to resist foreign occupation. The stage was set for a brutal conflict that would reshape the political landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The Greek Advance and the Turkish Resistance
In May 1919, Greek forces, with Allied approval, landed in Smyrna, sparking violent clashes with the local Turkish population. The initial Greek campaign was marked by rapid territorial gains, as they pushed inland toward key cities like Aydın, Afyonkarahisar, and Eskişehir. However, logistical overextension and harsh reprisals against Turkish civilians fueled resentment and strengthened Kemal’s nationalist cause.
The turning point came in August–September 1921 at the Battle of Sakarya, where Kemal’s forces inflicted a decisive defeat on the Greeks. Despite suffering heavy casualties, the Turks exploited Greek exhaustion and poor morale. By August 1922, Kemal launched a daring counteroffensive, culminating in the Battle of Dumlupınar, where the Greek army was encircled and shattered. On September 9, 1922, Turkish troops entered Smyrna, effectively ending Greek ambitions in Anatolia.
Scorched Earth and Humanitarian Catastrophe
The war was marked by extreme brutality on both sides. Greek forces, during their retreat, implemented a scorched-earth policy, burning Turkish villages and massacring civilians. Reports from British and American observers, including historian Arnold Toynbee, documented widespread atrocities. In retaliation, Turkish forces exacted revenge on Greek and Armenian communities, particularly during the Great Fire of Smyrna (September 1922), which destroyed much of the city and forced hundreds of thousands of refugees to flee.
The conflict also saw the collapse of Greek morale. Desertions surged, and soldiers—disillusioned and exhausted—looted indiscriminately. British diplomat Harry Lamb described Greek troops as “demoralized beyond redemption,” while American consul George Horton reported scenes of panic as Greek civilians fled toward the coast.
The Treaty of Lausanne and the Legacy of the War
The war’s aftermath was formalized in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which nullified Sèvres and established modern Turkey’s borders. A compulsory population exchange displaced over 1.5 million people: Orthodox Christians from Anatolia were sent to Greece, while Muslims in Greece were relocated to Turkey. This mass displacement reshaped both nations demographically and culturally.
For Turkey, the victory solidified Mustafa Kemal’s position as the father of the republic. The war’s success enabled sweeping reforms, including the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate and the establishment of a secular state. Conversely, Greece’s defeat led to political upheaval, the fall of the monarchy, and a lasting trauma known as the “Asia Minor Catastrophe.”
The Greco-Turkish War remains a defining moment in 20th-century history, illustrating the violent birth pangs of nationalism and the enduring scars of imperial collapse. Its legacy continues to influence regional tensions, from Cyprus to the Aegean disputes, serving as a reminder of how deeply history shapes the present.