The Historical Heartland of Han Burial Traditions

The vast burial grounds unearthed across western Henan, southern Shanxi, and southern Hebei provinces reveal a remarkably consistent pattern of Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) mortuary practices. Centered around the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang, this cultural sphere extended east to western Shandong, west to Sanmenxia, north to the Shijiazhuang-Taiyuan line, and south to Nanyang. Historical records from the Book of Han: Treatise on Geography and Sequel to the Book of Han: Treatise on Commanderies and States identify this as the administrative core of Han territory, encompassing the “Three Rivers” region (Henan, Hedong, and Henei commanderies) plus eastern Hongnong commandery under the Metropolitan Commandant’s jurisdiction.

This area maintained unusually stable political connections with the central government throughout the frequent administrative changes of the Han period. The archaeological record confirms this stability through standardized tomb architecture and burial customs that persisted for centuries. Notably, the Sanmenxia region west of Luoyang presents an interesting case – established as Hongnong commandery in 114 BCE under Emperor Wu, it initially showed stronger cultural ties to Chang’an (the Western Han capital) before gradually assimilating to Luoyang’s traditions during the Eastern Han period when both commanderies fell under the Metropolitan Commandant’s oversight.

A Spectrum of Han Dynasty Tombs

Archaeologists have uncovered a staggering variety of Han tombs in central China, reflecting the full social hierarchy of imperial China:

By social status:
– Imperial mausoleums and princely tombs
– Mid-to-low ranking officials’ burials
– Commoner graves
– Convict pit burials

By construction type:
– Vertical earthen pit tombs
– Earthen cave tombs
– Brick chamber tombs (including hollow brick and small brick varieties)

By burial arrangement:
– Single interments
– Spousal joint burials
– Family cluster burials

The region has yielded particularly rich finds of decorated tombs, including:
– 12 painted mural tombs in Luoyang (like the famous Bu Qianqiu Western Han mural tomb)
– The monumental Eastern Han mural tomb at Dahuting in Mi County
– Stone relief tombs concentrated in Nanyang region (with examples like the Tianfeng 5 CE tomb of Lady Feng)

Systematic excavations since the 1950s have documented thousands of Han tombs around Luoyang alone, including:
– 519 tombs surveyed near Shaogou (225 excavated)
– 50 tombs along Zhongzhou Road
– 81 tombs at Zhou Mountain
– Over 2,000 additional unpublished burials

Other significant concentrations include:
– 46 tombs at Liujiaqu in Shan County
– 127 Qin-Han tombs at Houchuan Village
– 277 tombs at Baifa in Yuxian County

The Evolution of Han Tomb Architecture

The 1959 publication Han Tombs at Luoyang’s Shaogou established a groundbreaking six-phase chronology that remains foundational for Han archaeology. Based on typological analysis of 225 tombs, this framework traces key developments:

Phase 1: Early Western Han (202-118 BCE)
– Single-chamber hollow brick or earthen cave tombs
– Flat ceilings replacing Warring States pit tombs
– Grave goods: ding tripods, dui vessels, hu jars
– Burial coins: banliang currency

Phase 2: Mid-Western Han (118-49 BCE)
– Continued use of single-chamber tombs
– New grave goods: model granaries and stoves
– Introduction of spousal joint burials (“two-phase” construction)
– Wuzhu coins become standard

Phase 3: Late Western Han (48 BCE-6 CE)
– Trapezoidal hollow brick tombs with multiple niches
– Full development of joint burials
– Ceramic well models join granary/stove sets
– Continued use of zhaoming and sunlight mirrors

Phase 4: Wang Mang Interregnum (9-23 CE)
– Domed “front hall, rear chamber” brick tombs
– Ritual vessels replaced by household models
– Wang Mang-era coins appear
– Boju mirrors with cosmological designs

Phase 5: Early Eastern Han (25-105 CE)
– Continued domed hall-chamber tombs
– Disappearance of ritual bronze sets
– Eastern Han wuzhu coins dominate

Phase 6: Mid-Eastern Han (106-146 CE)
– Double-domed tombs with ramped passages
– New grave goods: livestock and servant figurines
– Shangfang mirrors appear
– Early celadon glazed wares

Phase 7: Late Eastern Han (147-220 CE)
– Multi-chamber family tombs
– “Horizontal front hall” layouts
– Tomb-quelling texts on flat-bottom jars
– Clipped and “four-out” wuzhu coins

This progression reveals three major trends:
1. From single to multi-chamber tombs reflecting changing family structures
2. Increasing architectural complexity for ritual purposes
3. Grave goods shifting from ritual bronzes to household items

Cultural Insights from the Grave

Han tombs provide unparalleled windows into ancient Chinese life. Ceramic models and inscriptions reveal agricultural practices – grain storage jars marked “10,000 dan of soybeans” or still containing millet, rice, and barley. Miniature stoves show cooking techniques, complete with molded meats and utensils. Musical figurines illustrate performance traditions, while farming tools and weapons document technological development.

The resurgence of human sacrifice in late Eastern Han tombs (like the Luoyang Dongguan site with 10 victims) contrasts with earlier periods’ ceramic substitutes. This parallels evidence of status differentiation in joint burials, where some occupants lacked proper coffins or grave goods.

Despite repeated imperial edicts against lavish burials (issued in 13 BCE, 31 CE, 69 CE, etc.), tomb archaeology confirms the persistence of “rich grave goods as for the living” practices. The 2nd century CE Anping tomb of Prince Liu Li (with its 24-room underground mansion) exemplifies this trend.

Social Stratification in Death

The archaeological record preserves stark class distinctions:
– Elite burials: Jade burial suits (like the Mengjin tomb), stone relief chambers (Dahuting), and mural-decorated tombs
– Middle-class interments: The Shaogou tombs representing minor landowners
– Poor burials: Simple pit graves or brick-lined chambers with few offerings
– Convict tombs: Mass burials like the 522 graves south of Luoyang (107-121 CE) with inscribed criminal laborer bricks

Enduring Legacy and Unanswered Questions

While Shaogou Han Tombs established fundamental chronological frameworks, many questions remain about this transformative period when:
– Joint spousal burial became standard
– Underground ritual spaces developed
– Family cluster burials emerged
– Grave goods shifted from ritual to domestic focus

Future research could better explore how these material changes reflect evolving beliefs about death and the afterlife. The rich archaeological record of central China’s Han tombs continues to offer profound insights into one of history’s most influential civilizations.