The Fall of Southern Ming and Qing Expansion into Guangdong

The mid-17th century witnessed the dramatic collapse of the Ming Dynasty and the relentless southward expansion of the Qing forces. By 1646, the Qing armies under Tong Yangjia and Li Chengdong had captured Guangzhou through a surprise attack, sending the Yongli Emperor’s court into disarray. Seizing the momentum, Qing commanders swiftly occupied other key cities in Guangdong province, including Shaozhou and Nanxiong, often meeting little resistance from demoralized Ming officials.

What made this conquest remarkable was the Qing’s numerical disadvantage—Tong and Li commanded barely 4,100 core troops, supplemented by a few thousand former Ming soldiers who had defected from Zheng Zhilong’s Fujian forces. Yet the Yongli regime, paralyzed by incompetence, failed to mount an effective defense. Even regional commanders like Chen Bangfu considered surrender, leaving Guangdong seemingly ripe for Qing domination.

The Rise of Guangdong’s Loyalist Resistance

Against this backdrop, three scholar-generals emerged as symbols of Ming loyalist resistance: Chen Bangyan, Zhang Jiayu, and Chen Zizhuang—later celebrated as Guangdong’s “Three Loyalists.”

Chen Bangyan, originally sent to negotiate between rival Ming factions, took to the mountains after the Qing capture of Guangzhou. Witnessing the chaotic retreat of Ming forces, he devised a bold strategy: “Just as Sun Bin relieved Zhao by attacking Wei, we must strike Guangzhou while the enemy is unsettled.” Rallying 20,000 local militia at Ganzhutan, his forces achieved initial success, destroying over 100 Qing ships and killing turncoat general Chen Hu in February 1647. Though his assault on Guangzhou failed, Chen continued guerrilla campaigns around Gaoming.

Zhang Jiayu, a former Ming minister, launched his uprising in Dongguan County in March 1647. His forces briefly captured the county seat and inspired coordinated rebellions across eight counties, with local leaders like Chen Wenbao and Liu Long fielding thousands of troops. Despite family massacres and military setbacks, Zhang fought relentlessly until his final stand at Zengcheng in October, where he drowned himself after being wounded by Qing arrows.

Chen Zizhuang, a Ming examination laureate and former cabinet member, organized resistance from Jiujiang Village. His elaborate plot to recapture Guangzhou using inside agents and 3,000 “pretend defectors” narrowly failed when discovered prematurely. After stubborn defense at Gaoming, Chen was captured and executed by dismemberment—a fate he met with stoic defiance, asking only that his young son be spared.

Tactical Brilliance and Psychological Impact

The Three Loyalists employed innovative asymmetric warfare:
– Chen Bangyan’s mobile riverine forces harassed Qing supply lines
– Zhang Jiayu coordinated multi-county uprisings to stretch Qing resources
– Chen Zizhuang attempted sophisticated urban infiltration

Their campaigns forced the Qing to recall Li Chengdong’s expeditionary force from Guangxi, inadvertently saving the Yongli regime from collapse. Contemporary records show Qing commanders like Tong Yangjia writing desperate pleas for reinforcements, admitting their 200-man Guangzhou garrison was hopelessly outmatched during Chen Zizhuang’s attack.

Legacy: From Military Defeat to Moral Victory

Though ultimately crushed by 1648, the Three Loyalists achieved strategic victories:
1. They prolonged Southern Ming resistance by diverting Qing forces
2. Their martyrdom inspired later revolts, including Li Chengdong’s eventual defection back to the Ming
3. They established Guangdong’s reputation as a center of anti-Qing sentiment

Qing documents reveal the psychological toll on occupiers. Execution orders for the Loyalists betray unease about their enduring influence, with Tong Yangjia insisting on extreme punishments (dismemberment) to deter emulation.

Modern historians recognize these campaigns as pivotal in shaping early Qing governance strategies in the south. The disproportionate resources devoted to suppressing Guangdong’s resistance delayed consolidation elsewhere, influencing the dynasty’s subsequent preferential treatment of loyal regions versus resistant ones.

The Three Loyalists’ story transcends military history—it represents the complex interplay between centralized authority and regional identity during dynastic transition. Their memorials still dot Guangdong’s landscape, serving as enduring symbols of local pride and Confucian loyalty reinterpreted through centuries of political change.