Introduction: A Prolonged Struggle Rooted in Medieval Rivalry

The Hundred Years’ War, spanning from 1337 to 1453, was one of the most significant and transformative conflicts in medieval European history. It was not merely a single war but a series of intermittent battles, sieges, and political struggles between England and France. The conflict was deeply rooted in territorial disputes, dynastic claims, and economic interests that had been simmering since the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. This prolonged confrontation reshaped the political landscapes of both nations, influenced the evolution of warfare, and left a lasting legacy on European history.

Historical Background: The Seeds of Conflict

### The Legacy of the Norman Conquest and Territorial Disputes

The origins of the Hundred Years’ War can be traced back to the complex relationship between England and France following the Norman Conquest. English monarchs inherited vast territories on the European continent, particularly in regions such as Aquitaine and Gascony in southwestern France. These lands were crucial not only for their strategic position but also for their economic value. Gascony, formerly the Duchy of Aquitaine, bordered the Bay of Biscay and stretched from the Pyrenees Mountains to the Poitou region. Despite France’s growing power, England maintained control over this prosperous area, which became a persistent obstacle to French political and territorial unification.

### Economic Importance of Gascony

Gascony was a significant commercial hub, known for its thriving wine industry, which exported large quantities of wine to England. This trade was vital for England’s economy, providing an essential import in exchange for English exports like textiles and grain. During the reign of Edward I , England strengthened its governance over Gascony, reaping substantial revenues, especially from customs duties on wine. For instance, between 1306 and 1307 alone, the English crown earned approximately 17,000 pounds from this region, mostly from wine tariffs. Even by 1324, this income remained significant at around 13,000 pounds, underscoring Gascony’s economic importance and the stakes involved in its control.

### The Fluctuating Anglo-French Rivalry Over Gascony

The contest for Gascony was characterized by intermittent conflict between the English and French crowns, beginning in earnest during the reign of Henry III of England in the 13th century and continuing under Edward I and Philip IV of France. The period between 1294 and 1303 witnessed particularly intense clashes, reflecting the broader struggle for dominance in western Europe.

The Struggle Over Flanders: Economic Interests and Political Alliances

### Flanders: A Commercial Powerhouse

Another critical flashpoint was Flanders, a region nominally under the French crown but effectively politically autonomous due to the weakness of French royal authority before the 13th century. Flanders was renowned for its flourishing cloth industry, which relied heavily on raw wool imported from England. This economic interdependence created a complex political environment: the wealthy merchant class in Flanders tended to favor England, recognizing Edward III as the rightful heir to the French throne and as their feudal overlord.

### The Conflict Between Urban Interests and Nobility

However, tensions existed within Flanders itself. The Count of Flanders, Louis, aimed to assert control over the prosperous cities, often siding with the French crown to suppress urban autonomy. In 1336, Louis escalated tensions by arresting English merchants and banning trade with England. In retaliation, Edward III forbade English wool exports to Flanders, severely impacting the Flemish economy. The city inhabitants appealed to Edward III for protection, further entangling the region in the Anglo-French rivalry.

The Scottish Factor: An Additional Geopolitical Dimension

The conflict was also entwined with the persistent Anglo-Scottish wars. Scotland, seeking to resist English domination, often found support from France, a relationship formalized in the Auld Alliance. In 1332, Edward III launched a military campaign against Scotland, achieving a decisive victory at the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333. Meanwhile, France provided aid to Scottish exiles and insurgents, exacerbating tensions between England and France and drawing Edward’s focus toward his continental rival.

The French Succession Crisis: The Spark That Ignited War

### The Complex Dynastic Claims

The immediate cause of the Hundred Years’ War lay in the disputed succession to the French throne. The French monarchy was intertwined with the English royal family through generations of intermarriage, complicating claims of legitimacy. When King Philip IV of France died, his three sons succeeded him in turn, but the last, Charles IV, died in 1328 without male heirs, ending the direct Capetian line.

### Edward III’s Claim and the French Response

Edward III, as the son of Isabella of France , claimed the French crown as the closest male relative through his mother. However, the French nobility invoked the Salic Law, which barred succession through the female line, rejecting Edward’s claim. Instead, they crowned Philip VI of Valois, a cousin of Charles IV, thus inaugurating the Valois dynasty. This decision was perceived by Edward as a direct affront, setting the stage for conflict.

Preparations for War: England Mobilizes

Anticipating a large-scale war, Edward III undertook extensive preparations to secure the necessary funds and resources. In July 1337, he arranged for wealthy merchants to monopolize the wool trade in exchange for a substantial loan of 200,000 pounds. The English Parliament also approved new taxes on movable goods to finance the military campaigns.

Edward ordered the recruitment of knights, archers, and militia across the country, offering monetary payment to ensure their service. Naval preparations included assembling fleets at major ports and purchasing supplies through county officials and merchants. These efforts culminated in open hostilities in 1337, when Philip VI seized the English-held duchy of Guyenne in southwestern France.

The Outbreak of War and Its Four Phases

### Phase One : English Ascendancy

The initial phase of the Hundred Years’ War was marked by significant English successes. With support from allies in Flanders, the English fleet dominated the Channel. The pivotal naval Battle of Sluys in June 1340 resulted in a decisive English victory, securing control over the English Channel and enabling the transport of troops and supplies to the continent.

Edward III launched offensives into French territory, including an attempted siege of Tours, although French resistance remained strong. The conflict expanded into Brittany and other regions, creating a multifront war that severely tested both kingdoms.

### The Significance of Military Innovations

During this period, the English military employed innovative tactics, especially the use of the longbow, which proved devastating against French knights. The combination of long-range archery and disciplined infantry formations allowed the English to win key battles such as Crécy , where the French king John II was captured, intensifying the war’s impact.

### Phase Two and Beyond

While this article focuses on the early years, it is essential to note that the war continued through multiple phases, involving periods of truce and renewed fighting, the rise of iconic figures like Joan of Arc, and ending with the French recovery and eventual expulsion of English forces from most continental territories by 1453.

Cultural and Political Impact

### National Identity and Centralized Monarchies

The Hundred Years’ War contributed significantly to the development of national identities in both England and France. The prolonged conflict fostered a sense of unity and patriotism, helping to consolidate centralized royal authority and diminish the power of feudal nobles.

### The Transformation of Warfare

The war also marked a transition from medieval to early modern warfare. The reliance on infantry and long-range weapons, the use of professional armies, and changes in fortification architecture were direct consequences of the conflict.

Legacy of the Hundred Years’ War

The Hundred Years’ War left a profound legacy in European history. It altered the balance of power, leading to the rise of France as a dominant continental power and the gradual shift of English interests toward maritime expansion and overseas colonization. The war’s political and social upheavals set the stage for the end of the medieval period and the dawn of the Renaissance.

Conclusion: A Defining Chapter in European History

The Hundred Years’ War was more than a series of battles; it was a complex tapestry woven from dynastic ambition, economic rivalry, and evolving political landscapes. From territorial disputes over Gascony and Flanders to the dynastic quarrels over the French crown, the conflict encapsulated the intricate interplay of medieval European power politics. Its century-long saga not only shaped the destinies of England and France but also laid the foundations for the modern nation-states of Europe.