The Powder Keg of Persian Egypt

By 460 BCE, the Achaemenid Empire’s grip on Egypt was fracturing. The spark came from Inaros, son of Psamtik III—last pharaoh of Egypt’s 26th Dynasty—who capitalized on Persia’s internal weaknesses. Earlier revolts under Darius I and Xerxes had been crushed, but Persian administrators allowed hereditary Egyptian nobles like Inaros to govern Libya, creating a power base for rebellion. When news reached Inaros of Satibarzanes’ revolt in Bactria, he saw his moment: expelling hated Persian tax collectors, hiring mercenaries, and crucially, securing Athenian support.

The Nile Delta erupted in rebellion, while Persian garrisons held the valley strongholds. Inaros’ forces lacked strength for prolonged conflict—a vulnerability that would define the coming war.

Athens’ Gamble in the Nile

Athens’ decision to send 200 triremes and 40,000 troops in 460 BCE reflected strategic calculus. Fresh from victories at Eurymedon (468 BCE), the Delian League sought to secure Egyptian grain routes as an alternative to perilous Black Sea voyages. The alliance promised mutual benefits: Athens gained a breadbasket; Inaros gained a superpower ally.

Their combined forces achieved stunning early successes:
– Papremis (459 BCE): Persian general Achaemenes (Xerxes’ brother) died in a crushing defeat, his body lost in battle.
– Naval Victory: Athens annihilated 50 Phoenician ships, then captured Memphis—though its citadel held out.

The Persian Counterattack

By 456 BCE, Persia mobilized overwhelming force:
– 300,000 troops under Megabyzus, a brilliant commander
– 300 Phoenician warships to challenge Athenian sea power

The tide turned at Memphis. Persian garrison forces inside the citadel coordinated with Megabyzus’ relief army, crushing the rebels. Inaros was captured; Athenian survivors retreated to Prosopitis Island. In a masterstroke, Persian engineers diverted the Nile, stranding 200 Athenian ships. After 18 months, the desperate Greeks burned their vessels and fought to near-annihilation—only 6,000 surrendered on Megabyzus’ promise of royal clemency.

Broken Promises and a General’s Revolt

Here, Persia’s honor system collided with palace politics. Queen Mother Amestris demanded execution of the prisoners to avenge Achaemenes’ death. Despite Megabyzus’ oath to spare them, Artaxerxes I eventually ordered:
– Inaros impaled
– 50 Athenian generals beheaded

This betrayal triggered Megabyzus’ rebellion in 450 BCE. As a descendant of Darius I’s co-conspirators and savior of Artaxerxes from a palace coup, his revolt shocked the empire. After defeating two royal armies (notably sparing captured general Usiris), Megabyzus negotiated a pardon—only to face later exile for “disrespect” after saving the king from a lion.

The Unraveling of an Empire

These events exposed systemic cracks:

1. Erosion of Imperial Cohesion
– Palace intrigues (eunuchs, queen mothers) undermined centralized authority
– Nobles like Megabyzus now dared armed resistance
– Provincial revolts became contagions (Bactria, Egypt, Mesopotamia)

2. Geopolitical Blowback
– Athens’ intervention showed external powers could exploit Persian instability
– Megabyzus’ son Zopyrus later allied with Athens against Persia (441 BCE)

3. Cultural Decline
– The broken oath to Athenian prisoners violated Zoroastrian truth-traditions
– Collective identity frayed as royal family members turned to fratricide

Legacy: The Beginning of the End

Though Persia would last another century, these mid-5th century crises foreshadowed its decline:
– Military Overextension: Maintaining 30-province control grew untenable
– Moral Authority Erosion: Kings breaking oaths lost divine mandate claims
– Greek Opportunism: Athens’ Egyptian adventure, though failed, revealed Persia’s vulnerability

The Inaros Revolt and Megabyzus Rebellion weren’t mere regional disturbances—they were tremors preceding an imperial collapse. When Alexander arrived 120 years later, he would find a Persia already hollowed out by such internal fractures.