The Historical Context: Succession Crises in Warring States Qin

The late Warring States period (475–221 BCE) was an era of intense competition among China’s seven major kingdoms, where the stability of royal succession often determined a state’s survival. The Qin kingdom, though militarily dominant under King Zhaoxiang’s long reign (306–251 BCE), faced a peculiar dilemma—the aging monarch had outlived his crown prince, leaving the succession uncertain. This vacuum created fierce competition among the royal grandsons, each backed by influential factions at court.

The situation mirrored broader tensions in Qin society between traditional aristocratic privileges and the meritocratic ideals of Legalist reformers like Shang Yang. As the kingdom expanded, its rulers needed heirs who could balance military prowess with administrative competence—a challenge compounded by the “Twenty-Six Princes” (the numerous royal grandsons) and their competing tutors representing Confucian, Mohist, and military philosophies.

The Examination That Shook the Royal Court

In 265 BCE, Chancellor Cai Ze—a pragmatic strategist from the Ji Ran school—was tasked by King Zhaoxiang with identifying the most capable heir. His unconventional approach would become legendary:

1. The Scholastic Debacle
Cai Ze first convened the princes’ tutors—Confucian scholar Zhao Zhang, Mohist scholar Xiang Lizhen, and Daoist-influenced Zhuang Cheng—only to witness their violent academic disputes. The Confucian tutor stormed out after his classical “Six Arts” curriculum was mocked as impractical for governance, exposing the intellectual chaos plaguing royal education.

2. The Merchant as Examiner
In a radical departure from tradition, Cai Ze appointed merchant-turned-strategist Lü Buwei as chief examiner. Lü designed a practical test focusing on:
– Qin’s population statistics
– Administrative geography (commanderies and counties)
– Legal code fundamentals
Not a single prince could answer these basic governance questions, including the favored candidate Ying Xi, whose angry protest (“Why should nobles know clerk’s work?”) revealed aristocratic entitlement.

3. The Cultural Shockwaves
The examination’s failure sent tremors through Xianyang. Traditionalists like military tutor Meng Minghuan argued for prioritizing archery and charioteering, while reformists saw the disaster as proof that “elites who can’t count beans shouldn’t rule kingdoms.” Princesses watching the event reportedly gasped when their brothers couldn’t name neighboring states.

The Social Implications: Merit vs. Bloodline

This episode crystallized three existential debates in late Qin:

1. The “Empty Crown” Problem
As recorded in the Shiji, Crown Prince Ying Zhu (later King Xiaowen) lamented: “Has Heaven abandoned us that none of my sons can govern?” His consort Lady Huayang—the only royal wife who grasped statecraft—quietly observed that “a weak ruler from good stock beats no ruler at all,” highlighting the dynasty’s desperation.

2. The Rise of Practical Learning
Lü Buwei’s examination questions reflected his merchant’s worldview:
– Population = Tax base
– Geography = Logistics
– Laws = Governance framework
His scathing critique—”How can one steer the chariot of state without knowing its wheels?”—became a rallying cry for administrative reformers.

3. The Forgotten Heir Abroad
Meanwhile, hostage prince Ying Yiren (later King Zhuangxiang) languished in Zhao. His reported philosophical debates with Lord Xinling of Wei—who allegedly called him “Qin’s lost treasure”—hinted at untapped potential. The merchant Lü Buwei would later bankroll Yiren’s audacious escape, altering Qin’s destiny.

The Enduring Legacy: From Humiliation to Unification

The failed examination had paradoxical consequences:

1. Institutional Reforms
Chancellor Cai Ze replaced classical tutors with veteran administrators to teach practical governance—an early precedent for the Qin bureaucracy that would later standardize weights, measures, and laws across unified China.

2. The Merchant’s Gambit
Lü Buwei’s involvement marked a turning point. His subsequent sponsorship of Prince Yiren—and the birth of future First Emperor Ying Zheng during Yiren’s exile—created an unlikely lineage where a merchant’s protégé sired China’s unifier.

3. Historical Ironies
The “unworthy” princes’ failure arguably saved Qin. As historian Sima Qian noted, had a conventionally educated heir taken the throne in 250 BCE instead of the Lü Buwei-mentored Yiren, Qin’s “legalist revolution” might have stalled, delaying unification by decades.

The 265 BCE examination thus stands as a pivotal moment—where a kingdom’s brutal honesty about its heirs’ inadequacies set the stage for revolutionary change, proving that sometimes, acknowledging failure is the first step toward greatness.