The Quest for the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra

Xuanzang, the renowned Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar, embarked on his legendary journey to India primarily to study and retrieve the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra (Treatise on the Stages of Yoga Practice), a foundational text of the Yogācāra school. Upon his return to China in 645 CE, he established a translation bureau in Chang’an with great urgency. However, in the first year, he focused on translating minor scriptures, using this period to refine his team’s skills and prepare for the monumental task of translating the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra.

By the time he began this translation in earnest, Xuanzang was in his forties—an age when intellectual maturity, physical stamina, and scholarly preparation converged perfectly. He devoted the prime of his life to this work, mobilizing the most learned monks across China to assist him. The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra was no ordinary text; its profound philosophical depth demanded unparalleled dedication. Even Xuanzang, with his extraordinary erudition, approached it with reverence, acknowledging that a lifetime might not suffice to fully grasp its teachings.

Maitreya: The Divine Inspiration Behind the Text

The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra is traditionally attributed to Maitreya, the future Buddha, whose significance in Chinese Buddhism cannot be overstated. Alongside Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin), Maitreya was one of the most venerated bodhisattvas. According to Buddhist scriptures, Maitreya was a disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha but ascended to Tuṣita Heaven, where he awaits his descent to Earth in 5.67 billion human years (equivalent to 4,000 heavenly years).

Yet, the familiar image of Maitreya in China—a rotund, laughing monk—is not his original form. Early depictions, such as those in the Bingling Temple Grottoes (399 CE), show him as a slender, crowned bodhisattva in a cross-legged pose. The transformation into the jovial, pot-bellied figure stems from the legend of Budai, a eccentric monk from Mingzhou (modern Ningbo) during the Later Liang dynasty (907–923 CE).

Budai, known for carrying a cloth sack and exhibiting miraculous powers, declared upon his death in 916 CE:

“Maitreya, the true Maitreya, manifests in countless forms. Constantly he appears before people, yet they fail to recognize him.”

This proclamation led to his identification as Maitreya’s incarnation, and his likeness replaced the traditional imagery. This shift was so profound that even the name “Ningbo” (replacing “Mingzhou”) was influenced by Emperor Hongwu of the Ming Dynasty, who sought to suppress potential rebellions inspired by Maitreyan millenarianism.

Maitreya’s Global and Historical Roots

Maitreya’s role as a future savior aligns with broader ancient messianic traditions. Around 1000 BCE, the Near East and Mediterranean regions harbored beliefs in a coming liberator—parallels to the Jewish Messiah or Zoroastrian Saoshyant. Scholars recognize that Maitreyan thought in India was part of this wider eschatological tradition, blending indigenous Buddhist concepts with cross-cultural influences.

In China, Maitreya worship predated the popularity of Amitābha and Guanyin. Early translations of Maitreya-related sutras and the discovery of the Maitreyasamiti-Nāṭaka (a Tocharian-language play about meeting Maitreya) attest to his early prominence. During the Tang Dynasty, figures like Xuanzang, Empress Wu Zetian, and poet Bai Juyi fervently revered Maitreya. Wu Zetian even claimed to be his earthly incarnation to legitimize her unprecedented reign.

The Decline of Maitreyan Devotion

Despite its early dominance, Maitreyan Buddhism waned after the Tang. The primary cause was political: as Maitreya symbolized hope for deliverance from oppression, rebellious movements frequently invoked him. Emperor Xuanzong’s ban on Maitreyan cults in the 8th century marked the beginning of its decline in official circles, though it persisted clandestinely among the populace.

Xuanzang’s Later Years and Cultural Exchange

Beyond translating Indian texts, Xuanzang also rendered Chinese works like the Daodejing and Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana into Sanskrit—though reluctantly, as he privately dismissed the Daodejing as “superficial.” These translations, commissioned by Emperor Taizong, reflect the Tang Dynasty’s cultural diplomacy.

Xuanzang’s final years coincided with upheaval in India. His ally, King Harsha, drowned mysteriously, plunging the subcontinent into chaos. Remarkably, the Tang envoy Wang Xuance, stranded during Harsha’s succession crisis, rallied Tibetan and Nepalese troops to crush a usurper, showcasing Tang’s far-reaching influence.

Legacy: A Bridge Between Worlds

Xuanzang’s translations and travels cemented his status as a pivotal figure in Buddhist history. The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra remains a cornerstone of East Asian Buddhism, while Maitreya’s evolving iconography exemplifies the dynamic interplay between doctrine and culture. From the scholarly halls of Chang’an to the rebellious whispers of medieval peasants, these narratives reveal how faith, politics, and art intertwine across centuries.

Xuanzang’s life—a tapestry of devotion, intellect, and adventure—continues to inspire, reminding us that the pursuit of wisdom transcends borders and epochs.