The Powder Keg of Late 19th Century Korea

The summer of 1894 witnessed a seismic shift in East Asian geopolitics when Japanese forces stormed the Korean royal palace in Seoul, setting in motion events that would escalate into full-scale war between Japan and Qing China. This pivotal moment represented the culmination of decades of imperial rivalries and Korea’s precarious position as the “Hermit Kingdom” caught between competing regional powers.

Korea’s strategic location made it a perpetual object of interest for its neighbors. The Joseon Dynasty had maintained a tributary relationship with China for centuries, but by the 1870s, Japan’s Meiji government began challenging this traditional order. The 1876 Treaty of Ganghwa forced Korea to open ports to Japanese trade, marking the beginning of Japan’s economic penetration. Over the next two decades, tensions escalated as both Japan and China sought to increase their influence over the peninsula.

The Coup Unfolds: July 23, 1894

The immediate catalyst for the palace coup was the Donghak Peasant Rebellion, which had prompted Korea to request Chinese military assistance. Japan responded by sending its own troops under the pretext of protecting Japanese citizens and interests. By mid-July, approximately 11,000 Japanese soldiers had established positions along the Han River and at three strategic locations around Seoul, with additional forces stationed near the Japanese legation.

Eyewitness accounts paint a vivid picture of the dramatic events. Russian military observer Vogak had been monitoring Japanese troop movements and reported his findings to the commander of the Russian gunboat Koreets in Incheon. Meanwhile, inside Seoul, acting French consul Victor Weber was abruptly awakened at 5 AM on July 23 by the sound of gunfire. A message soon arrived from Korean royal advisor Lee Seon-deok: “The Japanese are attacking the palace.”

By 9 AM, King Gojong had sent urgent invitations to the American, Russian, German, British, and French representatives. When Weber arrived at the palace that afternoon, he found the streets eerily empty except for Japanese sentries. His description of the scene reveals a monarch in distress: “The impression we received was that of visitors arriving to see a prisoner rather than a king.” Gojong appeared visibly shaken, dressed in simple indoor clothing rather than royal robes, and pleaded with the diplomats for international assistance to free Korea from its predicament.

International Reactions and Diplomatic Fallout

The international community reacted with alarm to Japan’s actions. German consular official Kberge delivered Weber’s account to Incheon, where it was recorded in official reports. These documents reveal the growing distrust of Japanese intentions among Western powers. Japanese minister Ōtori Shinichiro claimed his forces had only marched through Seoul to occupy positions across the Han River and had been fired upon first by Korean guards. However, foreign observers dismissed these explanations as “the most shameless lies.”

The reports noted how Japan had “discarded the mask of politeness and restraint” and was now displaying “the undisguised brutality of Asiatics.” This racialized language reflected both Western prejudices and growing concerns about Japan’s aggressive expansionism. On July 25, Vogak departed for China aboard the French cruiser Lion, while forty Russian marines arrived in Incheon to reinforce their legation in Seoul.

Japan’s Consolidation of Power

Following the palace seizure, Japan moved swiftly to reshape Korea’s government. Key members of the Min clan, including the powerful Min Yeong-jun, were removed from office and exiled. Although the Japanese blocked the conservative Daewongun’s attempt to depose Queen Min, they installed a new pro-Japanese cabinet led by Kim Hong-jip as Chief State Councillor.

The newly created Deliberative Council (Gunguk Gimucheo) included reformist figures like Kim Hak-gyu, Park Jeong-yang, and Yu Gil-jun. Tellingly, one of its secretaries was Shikawa, a clerk from the Japanese legation. This new government became the instrument through which Japan would sever Korea’s traditional ties with China.

The Road to War: Fabricated Justifications

On July 25, Ōtori pressured Korean officials to renounce all treaties with China and expel Qing forces. When Foreign Minister Cho Byeong-sik hesitated, Ōtori simply fabricated a document purporting to authorize Japanese action against Chinese troops. Foreign Minister Mutsu Munemitsu later admitted Japan had “forcibly obtained from the Korean court a document requesting the expulsion of Chinese soldiers from Asan.”

This set the stage for military confrontation. That same day, Japanese warships attacked Chinese vessels near Asan, sinking the British-flagged transport Kowshing and killing nearly 900 Chinese soldiers. Three days later, Japanese ground forces defeated Chinese troops at Seonghwan. All these clashes occurred before formal declarations of war, demonstrating Japan’s preference for creating facts on the ground.

The Dueling Declarations of War

When formal declarations finally came on August 1, they revealed starkly different narratives. Japan’s proclamation, its first modern declaration of war, framed the conflict as a defense of Korean independence: “Korea is an independent state… Japan was the first to lead Korea into the company of civilized nations.” The document made no mention of the palace occupation or the puppet government in Seoul.

China’s response emphasized Korea’s centuries-old tributary status and condemned Japan’s actions as violations of international law. The declaration’s reference to Japan “spreading its wings like an owl” (a classical allusion to aggressive posturing) reflected traditional Sino-centric worldviews colliding with Japan’s modern imperialism.

The Transformation into Full-Scale War

With declarations issued, both powers poured troops into Korea. Japan deployed the 5th Division to complement its existing forces, while China concentrated its army at Pyongyang. As Mutsu observed, Korea became divided between the two armies, with the entire peninsula effectively transformed into a battlefield.

The July 1894 coup marked Korea’s transition from contested territory to occupied nation. Japanese forces had disarmed Korean troops, leaving only palace guards with weapons. The country’s government operated under Japanese supervision, its foreign policy dictated by Tokyo. What had begun as a competition for influence had become outright war—one that would reshape East Asia’s balance of power for decades to come.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The events of July 1894 represent a critical turning point in East Asian history. Japan’s actions demonstrated its willingness to use military force to achieve regional dominance, while China’s inability to protect its traditional vassal exposed the Qing Dynasty’s weakness. For Korea, the coup marked the beginning of decades of foreign domination that would culminate in full annexation in 1910.

The diplomatic maneuvers surrounding these events also revealed much about international relations in the age of imperialism. Western powers, while critical of Japan’s methods, ultimately accepted its growing influence—a pattern that would repeat in subsequent decades. The fabricated justifications for war and the manipulation of Korea’s government established precedents for later Japanese expansionism.

Today, these events remain central to understanding modern East Asian geopolitics. The tensions and rivalries that emerged in 1894 continue to influence regional dynamics, making this pivotal summer a crucial chapter in the history of international relations in Asia.