The Historical Stage: China and the Catholic Church in Collision
When Pope Clement XI’s special envoy Carlo Ambrogio Mezzabarba (known in Chinese as Jia Le) approached Beijing in December 1720, he walked into a century-old controversy. The Chinese Rites Controversy—a debate over whether Chinese ancestral veneration and Confucian ceremonies constituted pagan idolatry—had already divided Catholic missionaries for generations.
For Emperor Kangxi, this was more than a theological dispute. The 66-year-old Qing ruler, having consolidated one of history’s greatest empires, now faced a challenge to his sovereignty. The papal legate’s arrival forced Kangxi to confront a fundamental question: Who held ultimate authority over Chinese subjects—the Son of Heaven in Beijing or the Vicar of Christ in Rome?
The Gathering Storm: Preparations Before the Legate’s Arrival
On December 17, 1720, Kangxi summoned all Beijing-based missionaries to an urgent conference. The emperor knew Mezzabarba’s delegation would reach the capital within seven days. This meeting served multiple purposes:
First, Kangxi reaffirmed his unchanged position since his 1706 meeting with previous papal envoy Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon. He maintained that Catholic doctrine could coexist with Confucian rites—the famous “Matteo Ricci compromise” that had guided Jesuit missions for over a century.
Second, he demanded all missionaries declare allegiance to Ricci’s accommodationist approach when meeting Mezzabarba.
Third, Kangxi imposed a gag order: no missionary could voice independent opinions to the legate without imperial approval.
This preemptive strike revealed Kangxi’s strategic thinking. By unifying the missionaries beforehand, he aimed to present a solid front against papal demands.
Diplomatic Chess: The First Moves
When Mezzabarba reached Dou Dian (50 km from Beijing) on December 24, Kangxi dispatched envoys with probing questions. The legate initially claimed his mission simply thanked Kangxi for tolerating missionaries—a transparent fiction.
Kangxi played his trump card: he mentioned the concurrent Russian embassy in Beijing. The implication was clear—if Mezzabarba appeared deceitful before Orthodox Christian rivals, it would damage Catholic prestige.
Cornered, Mezzabarba revealed his true objectives:
1. Request imperial approval to command all Catholic priests in China
2. Seek Kangxi’s endorsement of the papal ban on Chinese rites
The emperor’s response was swift and devastating. He canceled their scheduled December 27 meeting and barred Mezzabarba from entering Beijing. Kangxi sarcastically “approved” both requests—on condition the legate take all missionaries back to Europe. Technical experts could stay, provided they kept papal rules private.
The Negotiation Dance: Threats and Counter-Threats
Mezzabarba, now effectively exiled outside Beijing, switched tactics. He appealed to Kangxi’s mercy, pleading exhaustion from his long journey. The emperor relented—but used the respite to lecture the legate about Catholic factionalism.
Kangxi accused Rome of bias, noting both papal envoys (Tournon and Mezzabarba) came from the anti-Jesuit Propaganda Fide. His rhetorical question—”Where is the fairness?”—framed Mezzabarba as prejudiced before substantive talks began.
The legate, realizing direct negotiation was impossible, tried a new approach on January 17, 1721. He submitted the full papal禁令 (ban) and begged Kangxi to specify which clauses were unacceptable. Mezzabarba promised to modify what he could and refer the rest to Rome.
Kangxi saw through this as an attempt to discern his bottom line. Instead of line-item objections, he appended a sweeping imperial rescript in vermilion ink:
“Such nonsense has gone too far. Henceforth, Westerners need not preach in China. Let us prohibit it to avoid trouble.”
Historians often cite this as evidence of Kangxi’s anti-Christian stance. But context reveals it as negotiation brinkmanship. Simultaneously, Kangxi ordered the arrest of Joseph-Antoine Provana—a Jesuit visitor secretly lobbying against the禁令. The coordinated pressure worked.
The Eight Permissions: A Face-Saving Compromise
On January 19, Mezzabarba produced Rome’s secret fallback position—eight concessions modifying the禁令:
1. Christians could use ancestral tablets bearing only names (no “spirit” characters) with Christian explanations
2. Non-superstitious mourning rites were permitted
3. Confucius veneration allowed with disclaimers
4. Funeral candles and incense permitted with declarations
5. Kowtowing before modified tablets approved
6. Food offerings at funerals allowed if clearly non-sacrificial
7. New Year bowing to ancestors permitted
8. Grave offerings with proper precautions
Kangxi, recognizing substantial papal concessions, immediately accepted. By January 21, his tone transformed from thunderous to gracious, inviting Mezzabarba to stay for Lunar New Year festivities.
The Aftermath: A Temporary Resolution
The remaining months saw remarkable cordiality. Mezzabarba:
– Celebrated Spring Festival (February 1721)
– Attended Kangxi’s Lantern Festival banquet
– Received gifts for the Pope and Portuguese king
– Departed Beijing on March 1 with full honors
Kangxi continued welcoming Western technicians until his December 1722 death. He even built a 37-acre tomb for Jesuit envoy Antonio Provana—a striking gesture of reconciliation.
Why the “Failed Mission” Narrative Persists
European-centric historiography dominates this episode’s interpretation. Scholars like Antonio Sisto Rosso viewed any papal compromise as failure. But contemporary reactions tell a different story:
– Pope Innocent XIII sent Kangxi a coronation announcement (1722)
– Portugal helped repatriate Tournon’s remains to Rome
– Mezzabarba received papal commendations
Chinese records also contributed to misunderstanding. Kangxi handled negotiations through the Imperial Household Department—bypassing official channels. When Qing historians later compiled records, they missed these confidential proceedings entirely.
The Lasting Significance
The 1721 resolution proved fragile. Kangxi’s successors lacked his nuanced approach to foreign relations. Yet this episode reveals crucial insights:
1. Kangxi’s masterful negotiation blended threats, concessions, and face-saving measures
2. The Qing state could compartmentalize religious disputes without broader societal impact
3. European powers already deferred to Chinese sovereignty in practice, if not in theory
Far from being a simple religious quarrel, the Mezzabarba mission tested the limits of cultural accommodation and imperial authority in an increasingly interconnected world. Kangxi’s handling of the crisis demonstrated why the Qing became history’s last successful pre-modern empire—able to engage global forces without losing its essential character.