A Realm in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire at Mid-Century

The year 1648 marked a pivotal moment in Ottoman history. The execution of Sultan Ibrahim and the ascension of his seven-year-old son Mehmed IV did not bring immediate stability to the empire. For the first eight years of Mehmed’s reign, factional conflicts between the Janissaries and Sipahi cavalry plunged the empire into chaos, with each faction backed by powerful royal women – Mehmed’s mother Turhan Sultan and his once-powerful grandmother Kösem Sultan, who would soon meet her demise at the hands of political rivals.

Meanwhile, the empire faced mounting external pressures. The prolonged war for Crete revealed a startling new reality: Ottoman naval supremacy had collapsed. By the mid-17th century, Venice controlled the seas while Maltese and Tuscan privateers roamed the Mediterranean unchecked. Even the Barbary pirates had slipped from Istanbul’s control. The once-mighty Ottoman navy could no longer protect its shipping lanes, let alone its coastline.

The Venetian Threat and Naval Collapse

When Ottoman forces landed at Chania in Crete, the Venetians responded with a devastating blockade of the Dardanelles, Aegean coast, and Morean ports. In a decisive naval battle, Venetian forces destroyed the Ottoman fleet carrying supplies and reinforcements for the siege of Candia. The Venetians followed this victory by capturing the strategic islands of Tenedos and Lemnos, which controlled access to both the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits.

For the Ottomans, this naval disaster rivaled the catastrophe at Lepanto. The Venetian blockade cut off supplies to the imperial capital, causing food prices to skyrocket in Istanbul. Public discontent grew as fears mounted that the enemy might soon attack the city itself.

The Rise of the Köprülüs: An Albanian Savior

At this critical juncture, Valide Sultan Turhan turned to an extraordinary figure – Köprülü Mehmed Pasha. An 81-year-old Albanian of humble origins whose ancestors came from the Anatolian town of Köprü (meaning “bridge”), Köprülü had risen through palace ranks from kitchen boy to chef before serving as governor of several provinces.

Before accepting the grand vizierate, Köprülü set unprecedented conditions: absolute authority over appointments, immunity from interference, control of all reports to the palace, and the sultan’s unconditional trust. With these powers secured through both royal oath and fatwa from the Grand Mufti, Köprülü became the empire’s eleventh grand vizier in eight years.

The Köprülü Restoration: Iron-Fisted Reform

Köprülü Mehmed moved swiftly to restore order. A pragmatic autocrat, he purged corrupt officials and executed an estimated 35,000 offenders during his five-year tenure. Unlike the indiscriminate cruelty of Murad IV, Köprülü’s measures were calculated to eliminate threats to state authority while reviving Ottoman power.

His military reforms redirected the army’s energies from internal factionalism to external conquest. He broke the Venetian blockade, retook Tenedos and Lemnos, and rebuilt the Ottoman fleet. New fortresses at the Dardanelles restored Turkish control over Aegean ports, allowing the siege of Candia to continue.

In Anatolia, Köprülü crushed the Abaza rebellion, sending the leader’s head to Istanbul. Along the Black Sea, new fortresses on the Don and Dnieper rivers strengthened defenses against Cossack raids. A successful Transylvanian campaign created a new province that would serve as a springboard for future operations into Hungary and Austria.

The Hunting Sultan and the Warrior Vizier

While Köprülü Mehmed restored imperial authority, Sultan Mehmed IV earned the nickname “Avcı” (the Hunter) for his obsession with the chase. English diplomat Paul Rycaut observed that no prince was ever “so addicted to the sports of the field.” The sultan’s hunting expeditions became massive undertakings, mobilizing 30-40,000 peasants to drive game while draining provincial resources.

This royal distraction allowed the Köprülüs unprecedented governing authority. When Köprülü Mehmed died in 1661, his 26-year-old son Fazıl Ahmed succeeded him as grand vizier. The elder Köprülü left his sovereign four principles: never heed women’s counsel, prevent subjects from growing too wealthy, keep the treasury full, and always keep the army occupied.

The Köprülü Zenith: Military Triumphs and Diplomatic Mastery

Köprülü Ahmed proved both a brilliant general and statesman. In 1663, he led the largest Ottoman army since Suleiman’s time into Hungary. After capturing key fortresses like Neuhäusel, Ottoman forces reached the banks of the Raab River near the Austrian border. Though defeated at the Battle of Saint Gotthard in 1664 – the first major field defeat by Christian forces since 1526 – Ahmed negotiated the advantageous Treaty of Vasvár, preserving most Ottoman gains.

Ahmed then turned to Crete, where he personally directed the final stages of the Candia siege from 1666-1669. Despite French intervention on Venice’s behalf, the city fell after what Rycaut called “the longest siege since Troy.” The peace terms gave Ottomans control of most Crete while allowing honorable withdrawal for Venetian defenders.

The Northern Expansion: Ukraine and the Polish Wars

In 1672, Köprülü Ahmed turned northward, intervening in Ukraine’s Cossack lands disputed between Poland and Russia. After Cossack leaders pledged allegiance to the sultan, Ottoman forces under Mehmed IV himself invaded Poland. The resulting Treaty of Buchach forced Poland to cede Podolia and pay tribute. Though Polish commander John Sobieski won some victories, the 1676 Treaty of Żurawno confirmed Ottoman gains, temporarily extending empire’s reach into northwestern Black Sea region.

The Köprülü Legacy: Reform and Renaissance

The Köprülü era represented both continuity and change. While maintaining traditional Ottoman institutions, both viziers implemented significant reforms:

– Administrative centralization shifting power from palace to grand vizier’s residence (the “Sublime Porte”)
– Military reorganization emphasizing discipline and external campaigns
– Fiscal reforms protecting peasantry while filling state coffers
– Relative religious tolerance (under Ahmed) despite earlier crackdowns on heterodoxy
– Cultural patronage of scholars, poets and historians

Köprülü Ahmed in particular embodied this synthesis – a devout Muslim who protected Christians and Jews, a ruthless conqueror who governed with justice, and a patron of learning who maintained military might. His sudden death in 1676 (from complications of alcohol consumption, his sole vice) marked the end of an era.

Conclusion: The Köprülü Paradox

The Köprülü viziers achieved what seemed impossible in the mid-17th century crisis: they revived Ottoman military power, expanded territories, and restored administrative efficiency. Yet their success also revealed the empire’s growing dependence on capable ministers rather than sultans themselves. The very effectiveness of their authoritarian reforms may have delayed more fundamental changes needed to address Europe’s rising power.

For nearly four decades, this remarkable Albanian family gave the aging empire a new lease on life. Their story remains one of history’s most striking examples of how individual leadership can alter a great power’s trajectory – if only temporarily. The Köprülü era stands as both the Ottoman Empire’s last great revival and a prelude to the challenges that would ultimately transform the Mediterranean world.