The Geopolitical Chessboard of Northeast Asia

In the turbulent aftermath of the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan faced numerous challenges in defining its northern frontiers. Meanwhile, the Russian Empire, expanding eastward across Siberia, sought warm-water ports to secure its Pacific ambitions. This collision of imperial interests centered on two strategic territories: Sakhalin Island (known as Karafuto in Japanese) and the Kuril archipelago.

Russia’s gradual consolidation of Far Eastern territories saw the 1871 relocation of its Siberian Fleet base from Nikolayevsk-na-Amure to Vladivostok. Despite its imposing name meaning “Ruler of the East,” Vladivostok struggled to attract settlers. Sakhalin, however, became a focal point of Russian attention, particularly after 1869 when Russian troops established the Korsakov military post at Japan’s former settlement of Kushunkoi in Aniva Bay.

Japan’s Dilemma and Strategic Retreat

For the fledgling Meiji government, Sakhalin presented a complex problem. Preoccupied with suppressing samurai rebellions and consolidating control over Hokkaido, Japan lacked resources to contest Russian advances effectively. In 1871, Kuroda Kiyotaka, vice-director of the Hokkaido Colonization Office, submitted a controversial proposal advocating complete withdrawal from Sakhalin. His memorandum outlined three options: maintaining the costly status quo of mixed habitation (worst choice), negotiating partition (middle path), or strategically abandoning the “useless territory” (optimal solution).

This pragmatic view gained traction as Japan recognized the island’s limited economic value and formidable Russian military presence. The 1872 arrival of Russian charge d’affaires Evgeny Butzov in Tokyo initiated formal negotiations, with Japanese Foreign Minister Soejima Taneomi exploring both purchase and sale options for Sakhalin.

Diplomatic Maneuvers and the Turning Point

The negotiations took unexpected turns. In 1873, Japan briefly considered requesting Russian permission for troop transit through Siberia during its planned expedition to Korea—a revealing glimpse of the era’s complex geopolitics. Meanwhile, tensions escalated on Sakhalin itself, culminating in a July 1874 arson attack at the Russian garrison in Kushunkoi.

The diplomatic breakthrough came through an unlikely figure: Enomoto Takeaki, Japan’s first minister to Russia. A former Tokugawa loyalist who had fought against Imperial forces at Hakodate’s Goryokaku fortress, Enomoto was rehabilitated by Kuroda precisely for his understanding of northern affairs. His 1875 negotiations with Russia’s Asian Department director produced the landmark Treaty of Saint Petersburg.

The Terms of Exchange

Signed on May 7, 1875, the agreement—commonly called the Kuril-Sakhalin Exchange Treaty—established:
– Full Russian sovereignty over Sakhalin
– Japanese acquisition of all Kuril Islands north of Urup (including strategically significant Paramushir)
– Clear demarcation preventing future territorial disputes

This arrangement gave Japan control over the entire Kuril chain while securing Russia’s position in Sakhalin. Notably, Russia initially resisted ceding Paramushir due to its importance for naval access through the Fourth Kuril Strait, but ultimately conceded.

Cultural Repercussions and Public Sentiment

The treaty sparked mixed reactions. Many Japanese viewed the exchange as unequal—trading vast Sakhalin for remote, sparsely populated islands. This perception fueled anti-Russian sentiment and inspired cultural figures like Futabatei Shimei (Japan’s first modern novelist) to study Russian, driven by concerns about future expansionism.

Russian intellectuals also voiced discontent. Anton Chekhov, during his 1890 Sakhalin expedition, criticized the government for surrendering the economically valuable Kurils. Nevertheless, the agreement brought stability, with Russia even securing winter berthing rights for its Pacific Fleet at Nagasaki—a remarkable arrangement lasting until the Russo-Japanese War.

The Human Dimension of Diplomacy

The treaty’s implementation involved fascinating cross-cultural encounters. Russian diplomat Baron Roman Rosen, then a young official delivering the ratified documents, would later serve as minister to Japan during critical pre-war negotiations. The territorial handover was supervised by Russian commissioner Matyunin, who would later influence the Bezobrazov clique’s aggressive Far Eastern policies.

In Nagasaki, the Russian presence fostered unique cultural exchanges. The 1875 lease of Inasa district land for a naval rest facility created a vibrant Russian quarter, while pioneering linguists like Shiga Tomooura facilitated communication. Russian Japanologist Dmitry Kostelev’s decade-long residency produced the first comprehensive Japanese history in Russian (1888), symbolizing the intellectual bridges built during this period.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The 1875 treaty successfully prevented conflict for three decades, until competing imperial ambitions erupted in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). Its demarcation lines remain relevant today in ongoing Kuril Islands disputes between Russia and Japan.

Historically, the agreement demonstrated Meiji Japan’s pragmatic diplomacy—prioritizing manageable objectives (Hokkaido development) over symbolic but unsustainable claims. For Russia, it secured Sakhalin while underestimating the Kurils’ strategic value, a miscalculation that would haunt later generations.

The cultural exchanges initiated during this period—from language studies to naval cooperation—created unexpected human connections amidst geopolitical rivalry, reminding us that even territorial disputes unfold through individual lives and choices. The Kuril-Sakhalin exchange stands as a case study in how nations can resolve competing claims through negotiation rather than conflict, though its long-term consequences continue to shape Northeast Asian geopolitics.