The Turbulent Backdrop of Five Dynasties China

The mid-10th century presented a China fractured by nearly a century of political chaos following the Tang dynasty’s collapse. When Emperor Chai Rong ascended the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty in 954, he inherited a realm where warlordism had become entrenched, Buddhist monasteries controlled vast wealth, and the imperial military remained dangerously fragmented. This unstable environment mirrored conditions that had prompted three previous major anti-Buddhist campaigns in Chinese history – under Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei (446), Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou (574), and Emperor Wuzong of Tang (845).

Buddhism’s dramatic resurgence during the chaotic Five Dynasties period followed a predictable historical pattern. As historian Mark Edward Lewis observed, “In times of social upheaval, religious institutions often served as alternative power structures that competed with the state for resources and loyalty.” The monasteries had become economic powerhouses, controlling large populations of tax-exempt monks and nuns, extensive farmlands, and substantial copper reserves melted into religious statues rather than coins.

Chai Rong’s Military and Economic Reforms

Following his decisive victory at Gaoping in 954 against the Northern Han, the 33-year-old emperor initiated sweeping reforms. His first target was the imperial military establishment, which had become dominated by hereditary officer clans. Chai Rong personally oversaw a massive restructuring:

– Executed 70 officers for cowardice after Gaoping
– Rotated regional military governors to break local power bases
– Created a new elite Palace Army under trusted commander Zhao Kuangyin
– Implemented strict merit-based recruitment for all military positions

The emperor then turned to economic restructuring. In May 955, he issued radical edicts targeting Buddhist institutions:

– Ordered the closure of 30,336 unlicensed monasteries (leaving only 2,694)
– Reduced monastic population from potentially millions to just 42,444 monks and 18,756 nuns
– Banned extreme ascetic practices like self-immolation
– Centralized ordination to five official centers

Chai Rong justified these measures with remarkable pragmatism: “If bronze statues were truly Buddha, would Buddha not sacrifice himself to save people? If my body could benefit the people, I would not hesitate to sacrifice it.”

Urban Planning and Infrastructure Development

Concurrent with his religious reforms, Chai Rong launched ambitious infrastructure projects:

– Expanded Bianliang (Kaifeng) into a metropolis four times its original size
– Redesigned city streets up to 30 paces wide
– Reclaimed marshlands by dredging the Bian River
– Established systematic urban planning including designated burial grounds

These projects anticipated the Northern Song dynasty’s commercial revolution, creating the physical framework that would make Kaifeng the world’s largest city within decades.

The Southern Campaign Strategy

Advisor Wang Pu’s “Border Opening Strategy” provided the geopolitical blueprint:

1. Exploit Southern Tang’s vulnerabilities through harassment tactics
2. First conquer vulnerable border regions
3. Use local resources for subsequent campaigns
4. Leave stubborn Northern Han for last

This “easy first, difficult later” approach would later be adopted wholesale by Zhao Kuangyin in his Song unification campaigns.

Historical Legacy and Modern Relevance

Chai Rong’s reforms represented the last great medieval attempt to subordinate religious institutions to state control. Unlike previous violent persecutions, his approach demonstrated nuanced understanding of Buddhist philosophy while ruthlessly eliminating economic competition.

The emperor’s premature death in 959 at age 38 cut short his ambitious plans, but the institutional foundations he laid enabled:

– The relatively bloodless Song dynasty transition
– China’s first commercial revolution
– Development of paper money and market economy
– Lasting state control over religious institutions

Modern scholars debate whether Chai Rong’s anti-Buddhist measures constituted true persecution or necessary economic reform. His own words suggest the latter: “Buddha taught goodness through wisdom. Those who follow goodness already worship Buddha. Bronze statues are not Buddha.”

The emperor’s pragmatic approach established a template for church-state relations that would characterize much of later Chinese history – religious tolerance provided institutions remained subordinate to imperial authority and economic priorities. This delicate balance, first articulated during Chai Rong’s brief but transformative reign, continues to influence state-religion relations in East Asia to this day.