The Bloody Reign of the Hongwu Emperor

Zhu Yuanzhang, the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty, rose from peasant origins to establish one of China’s most enduring imperial dynasties. However, his later reign was marked by paranoia and ruthless purges. Two major cases—the Hu Weiyong Affair (1380) and the Lan Yu Affair (1393)—decimated the ranks of Ming officials and military leaders. By 1393, only five veteran generals remained: Feng Sheng, Fu Youde, Geng Bingwen, Guo Ying, and Tang He.

These men survived not through virtue or strategy, but sheer luck. Zhu’s purges followed no clear logic—once a “primary offender” was identified, accusations spread randomly. As Fu Youde reportedly remarked, “Zhu Yuanzhang has no one left to kill.” The emperor, realizing his grandson Zhu Yunwen would need advisors, now eyed these survivors with new purpose.

Guo Ying: The Emperor’s Favorite

Among the five, Guo Ying stood out. A strikingly handsome man who began as Zhu’s ceremonial guard, he earned respect through battlefield prowess rather than looks. Skilled in archery and hand-to-hand combat, Guo sustained over 100 injuries in service to the Ming. His bravery bordered on recklessness, yet he repeatedly achieved miraculous victories.

Zhu’s affection for Guo deepened when he married Guo’s sister, making the general his brother-in-law. The emperor fondly called him “Little Fourth Guo” (郭小四), a nickname reflecting their personal bond. Unlike other nobles who amassed wealth, Guo owned just one modest home. When questioned, he replied: “Houses are for living, not speculation. My descendants already enjoy privilege—luxury would corrupt them.” Zhu praised this attitude, though his admiration centered less on Guo’s frugality than his loyalty.

The Psychology of Survival

Guo’s survival tactics reveal much about Zhu’s court:
– Discipline: Having served in Zhu’s personal guard, Guo instilled absolute obedience in his troops.
– Humility: He avoided ostentation, understanding that visible ambition invited suspicion.
– Emotional Intelligence: Guo often bolstered Zhu’s morale during early campaigns, reminding him of a prophecy by Guo’s father that Zhu would rise to greatness. This role as the emperor’s “psychological therapist” cemented trust.

When summoned after the Lan Yu purge, Guo feared execution. Instead, Zhu tested his fitness and reminisced about their shared past. The aging general performed a feeble martial arts demonstration, prompting Zhu to tearfully reflect on their mortality.

The Succession Dilemma

Zhu’s true concern was his grandson’s unpreparedness. He probed Guo’s willingness to mentor Zhu Yunwen, seeking reassurance of continued loyalty. Guo pledged allegiance but privately doubted his capacity—he was a soldier, not a statesman.

Their conversation turned to Geng Bingwen. Guo’s assessment—”He shouldn’t die”—revealed the pervasive fear among survivors. Zhu then asked if Geng could co-advise the heir. Guo honestly noted Geng’s defensive expertise but lack of strategic vision for crises. This inadvertently damned himself—Zhu now saw Guo similarly: reliable but unimaginative.

The Cost of Paranoia

Zhu’s purges left Ming critically weakened:
– Military: The decimation of seasoned commanders like Lan Yu created a leadership vacuum.
– Governance: Executed scholars left the bureaucracy inexperienced.
– Legacy: Zhu Yunwen’s subsequent defeat by the Yongle Emperor (Zhu Di) partly stemmed from this lack of capable advisors.

The five survivors symbolized Zhu’s tragic contradiction: he eliminated threats so thoroughly that his dynasty became vulnerable.

Modern Parallels

History judges Zhu’s methods harshly, yet they echo in modern authoritarian regimes where perceived stability justifies repression. The Ming purges remind us that eliminating all potential rivals can leave systems brittle—a lesson relevant to leadership today.

Guo Ying’s story endures as a testament to navigating tyranny through loyalty, discretion, and luck. His final advice to his family—”Stay loyal, live simply”—captures the precariousness of life under an autocrat’s shadow. In the end, survival was its own victory.