Introduction: Rethinking Talent and Society in Ancient China

In the vast expanse of Chinese historiography, Sima Qian, the renowned Han dynasty historian, stands out not only for his meticulous chronicling of events but also for his thoughtful reflections on society and human nature. His monumental work, the Records of the Grand Historian , goes beyond mere record-keeping; it embodies a nuanced understanding of the social fabric of his time. Among his many insightful contributions is a distinctive recognition of talent outside the traditional elite classes—particularly in professions like medicine, divination, and commerce.

While classical Chinese society often defined talent within the confines of scholars, aristocrats, and officials, Sima Qian’s writings illuminate a broader spectrum. He emphasizes that real ability and influence also reside with those in unconventional fields such as medical practitioners and fortune-tellers, professions requiring specialized skills and knowledge. This article explores how Sima Qian’s treatment of these groups, culminating in his final biographical chapter on merchants and economic activity, challenges prevailing social hierarchies and offers a profound commentary on human desires, governance, and economic life in early imperial China.

Beyond the Confucian Elite: Recognizing Talents in Medicine and Divination

Sima Qian’s progressive view emerges vividly in his biographical narratives, particularly in the Biographies of the Physicians and Diviners. Through dialogues between historical figures like Song Zhong and Jia Yi, Sima Qian argues that talent is not the exclusive domain of the literati or nobility but is highly concentrated among those who practice medicine and divination. These professions, though often marginalized, require extraordinary intellectual and practical skills, and their practitioners wield significant influence on society.

By documenting the lives and deeds of notable physicians like Bian Que and diviners, Sima Qian elevates their status, inscribing their contributions into the historical record. This approach was revolutionary, as it broadened the definition of merit beyond Confucian orthodoxy, which prioritized moral virtue and classical learning. His acknowledgment of these fields underscores a historical reality often overlooked: that specialized knowledge and practical wisdom are critical to societal well-being and deserve recognition alongside political and scholarly achievement.

The Culmination in the “Biographies of Merchants”: Commerce as a Social Force

The most striking testament to Sima Qian’s unconventional perspective is found in the final biographical chapter of the Shiji, the “Biographies of Merchants” . Positioned as the penultimate chapter before Sima Qian’s own autobiographical preface, this work occupies a unique place in the historiographical tradition.

Unlike the opening chapter, the “Biography of Boyi,” which begins with philosophical exposition rather than individual narrative, Sima Qian also opens the “Biographies of Merchants” with a discourse on principles rather than on specific persons. This deliberate symmetry frames commerce and economic activity not as base or secondary pursuits—as traditional Confucian thought often regarded them—but as essential to the fabric of society.

By doing so, Sima Qian confronts societal prejudices against merchants, who were typically ranked at the bottom of the social hierarchy and viewed with disdain. He challenges the notion that commerce is inherently unworthy, insisting instead on its fundamental value and the wisdom involved in trade and wealth accumulation.

Daoist Philosophy and Its Ambiguities in Han Governance

The opening of the “Biographies of Merchants” quotes a famous passage from Laozi’s Dao De Jing:

> “In the greatest harmony, neighboring states can see each other; the sounds of cocks and dogs can be heard. People each enjoy their food, wear fine clothes, abide by their customs, and find joy in their work. They grow old and die without traveling beyond their villages.”

In the early Han dynasty, Daoism, especially the teachings of Laozi, heavily influenced political philosophy. The ideal governance model promoted “wu wei” — non-action or effortless action — advocating minimal interference in people’s lives and encouraging contentment with simplicity and reduced desires.

Superficially, Sima Qian’s citation of Laozi appears to endorse this ideal: a peaceful society where everyone is satisfied with their lot, and rulers do not impose heavy-handed controls. This image aligns with the Daoist vision of a harmonious, self-regulating society.

Sima Qian’s Subtle Rebuttal: The Reality of Human Desire

However, Sima Qian’s true stance unfolds immediately after the Laozi quotation, marked by the phrase “The Grand Historian says.” Here, he diverges sharply from the Daoist ideal, offering a more pragmatic and historically grounded view:

> “Before the era of Shennong, I do not know; but from the times recorded in the Book of Poetry and the Book of Documents onward, human beings have been immersed in sensory pleasures, savoring flavors, enjoying comfort, and boasting of their accomplishments.”

Sima Qian acknowledges the deep-rooted nature of human desires—people have long pursued sensory gratification and material comforts. This is not a mere moral failing but a historical constant. Consequently, attempts to suppress or deny these desires are unrealistic.

In effect, Sima Qian critiques the Daoist political ideal as internally contradictory. To realize a society where desires are minimal and everyone is content without interference, one would have to enforce such conditions actively—thus abandoning the principle of “wu wei” , a coercive imposition, which undercuts its philosophical foundation.

Governance Strategies: From Coercion to Pragmatism

Sima Qian proposes a hierarchy of governance strategies to manage human desires:

1. The worst approach is to forcefully suppress or deny people’s desires.
2. A better method is to regulate desires by establishing rules that channel behavior.
3. A higher strategy involves educating people to moderate or abandon excessive desires.
4. An even more advanced approach is to guide people in how to satisfy desires wisely and safely.
5. The best method is to harness natural desires, allowing them to flourish freely but directing them constructively.

This framework reveals Sima Qian’s nuanced understanding of social order and governance: rather than attempting futile suppression of human nature, rulers should work with it, leveraging natural inclinations to foster stability and prosperity.

Commerce as an Expression of Human Nature and Social Order

Within this context, commerce emerges not as a threat or a base activity but as an essential expression of human desire and ingenuity. Merchants and traders, far from being mere profiteers, embody the practical wisdom and adaptive strategies that sustain economies and communities.

Sima Qian’s inclusion of the “Biographies of Merchants” at the conclusion of the Shiji is thus a powerful statement: economic activity deserves historical recognition and respect. It reflects the complex interplay between human nature, societal norms, and political governance.

The Broader Historical and Cultural Impact

Sima Qian’s perspectives anticipate later debates about the role of commerce and specialized knowledge in society. His recognition of the talents of physicians, diviners, and merchants challenges the rigid social stratification of his time and asserts the value of practical expertise.

In a broader cultural sense, his work bridges Confucian moralism, Daoist philosophy, and realpolitik. By acknowledging the persistence of desire and the necessity of commerce, Sima Qian offers a realistic blueprint for governance and social harmony that resonates through Chinese history.

His approach also enriches our understanding of Han dynasty society, revealing a dynamic civilization balancing ideals and realities, tradition and innovation.

Legacy: Sima Qian’s Enduring Relevance

The innovative stance Sima Qian takes in his historiography has enduring significance. His willingness to document and praise talents beyond established elites opens historiographical space for diverse voices and professions.

Furthermore, his critique of Daoist political idealism invites ongoing reflection on human nature, governance, and economic life. By framing commerce and human desires as natural and manageable forces rather than aberrations, Sima Qian offers insights that transcend time and culture.

In modern scholarship, his work encourages a multifaceted view of history that values practical wisdom alongside moral virtue, and economic activity alongside political authority.

Conclusion: A Visionary Historian’s Balanced View of Society

Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian is far more than a chronicle of emperors and battles—it is a profound meditation on the human condition and the complexities of social order. His recognition of physicians, diviners, and merchants as vital contributors to society challenges conventional hierarchies and expands our appreciation of talent and influence.

By embedding a critical dialogue with Daoist philosophy and advocating pragmatic governance attuned to human nature, Sima Qian crafts a sophisticated vision of harmony—one that embraces desire and commerce as integral, not antithetical, to a well-functioning society. This vision remains compelling today, reminding us of the enduring interplay between ideals and realities in the human story.