Introduction: The Historical Context of Taiwan

The island of Taiwan has maintained deep historical and cultural connections with mainland China for centuries, serving as both a strategic outpost and an integral part of Chinese territory. During the late Ming Dynasty, as central authority weakened due to corruption and internal strife, European colonial powers began expanding their influence across Asia. The Dutch East India Company, seeking to establish trading dominance in the region, identified Taiwan as a valuable foothold for their commercial ambitions. This period of European expansion coincided with the decline of Ming power and the rise of the Qing Dynasty, creating a complex geopolitical landscape that would ultimately lead to one of East Asia’s most significant military campaigns.

Dutch Colonization and Oppression

In the early 17th century, Dutch forces capitalized on the Ming government’s weakening control to establish colonial rule over Taiwan’s coastal regions. The Dutch constructed formidable fortifications, most notably Fort Zeelandia and Fort Provintia, which served as administrative centers and symbols of their military presence. Under Dutch administration, the local population faced increasingly harsh treatment, including heavy taxation systems that placed significant economic burdens on Taiwanese residents. The colonial government implemented compulsory purchase systems for local products while selling European goods at inflated prices, creating economic dependency and resentment among the indigenous population.

Resistance movements emerged periodically, but Dutch military technology and organization typically overwhelmed these uprisings. The colonial administration employed divide-and-rule tactics, pitting different ethnic groups against each other while maintaining a relatively small but well-armed military presence. Despite these challenges, the desire for liberation continued to simmer beneath the surface, waiting for the right moment and leadership to coalesce into effective opposition.

Zheng Chenggong: The Formative Years

Zheng Chenggong, known in Western sources as Koxinga, was born in 1624 to Zheng Zhilong, a powerful Chinese merchant-pirate who operated throughout the East China Sea. From an early age, Zheng accompanied his father on trading expeditions, including visits to Taiwan where he witnessed firsthand the suffering of the local population under Dutch rule. These experiences planted the seeds of determination that would later define his military career.

As the Ming Dynasty collapsed under internal rebellion and Manchu invasion, Zheng remained loyal to the Ming cause. His father eventually defected to the Qing, but Zheng chose to continue resisting the new regime. Establishing himself in Fujian province, he built a formidable naval force that combined European ship designs with traditional Chinese maritime tactics. This force would become the instrument through which he would challenge both Qing authority and European colonialism.

The Strategic Decision to Liberate Taiwan

By 1661, Zheng Chenggong found himself in a increasingly precarious position. Qing forces had consolidated control over much of mainland China, including Fujian and Guangdong provinces, effectively blockading Zheng’s stronghold in Xiamen. This isolation created severe logistical challenges, particularly regarding recruitment and supplies. Faced with these constraints, Zheng recognized the strategic necessity of establishing a secure base beyond Qing reach.

Taiwan presented an ideal solution—a fertile island with strategic positioning that could serve both as a refuge and as a platform for continuing resistance against the Qing. The liberation of Taiwan would address multiple objectives simultaneously: eliminating Dutch colonialism, gaining a sustainable territorial base, and fulfilling his longstanding commitment to freeing the Taiwanese people from foreign oppression. This decision marked a pivotal shift in Zheng’s strategy from purely anti-Qing resistance to incorporating anti-colonial liberation.

Critical Intelligence and Preparation

The planning phase received a significant boost when a former interpreter for Dutch forces arrived in Xiamen with crucial intelligence. This informant provided detailed information about Dutch military dispositions, fortification strengths, and local sentiment. Most importantly, he delivered comprehensive maps of Taiwan’s coastline and Dutch defensive positions, enabling Zheng to plan his invasion with unprecedented precision.

According to historical accounts, the informant confirmed that the Taiwanese population remained deeply discontented with Dutch rule and would likely support any liberation effort. This intelligence proved invaluable in shaping Zheng’s operational planning, giving him confidence that both military and logistical conditions favored his campaign. The detailed geographical knowledge allowed his fleet to navigate safely to landing points that avoided the strongest Dutch defenses.

The Naval Expedition Begins

In April 1661, Zheng Chenggong assembled an invasion fleet of approximately 25,000 soldiers aboard hundreds of warships and transports. Leaving his son Zheng Jing in command of remaining forces in Xiamen, Zheng personally led the expedition toward Taiwan. The voyage encountered both natural challenges and psychological hesitations among some crew members who feared Dutch naval artillery.

Demonstrating exceptional leadership, Zheng positioned his flagship at the vanguard of the fleet and addressed his troops’ concerns directly. Historical records indicate he delivered a stirring speech emphasizing that Dutch firepower, while technologically advanced, could be overcome through determination and tactical ingenuity. This display of personal courage and confidence solidified his command and maintained morale throughout the journey.

Landing Operations and Initial Combat

Dutch authorities had received intelligence about Zheng’s impending invasion and attempted to prepare defenses. They concentrated their forces around likely landing sites and scuttled old ships in harbors to obstruct approaching vessels. These preparations proved inadequate against Zheng’s detailed planning and the element of surprise he maintained.

Zheng’s forces landed successfully at Luermen Bay on April 30, 1661, establishing a beachhead despite Dutch defensive efforts. The landing operation demonstrated sophisticated amphibious capabilities that surpassed contemporary European expectations of Asian military operations. As Zheng’s troops established positions ashore, local Taiwanese residents emerged to provide enthusiastic support, offering food, water, and logistical assistance that significantly enhanced the invasion force’s sustainability.

The Battle of the Bay

The first major naval engagement occurred when Dutch authorities dispatched four major warships to challenge Zheng’s fleet. The Dutch vessels, including the flagship Hector, possessed superior firepower and heavier construction than Zheng’s lighter, more maneuverable junks. Rather than engaging in traditional broadside exchanges, Zheng employed swarm tactics, surrounding individual Dutch ships and overwhelming them with concentrated fire.

In a decisive moment, Zheng’s forces focused their attack on the Hector, scoring critical hits that ignited its powder magazine. The subsequent explosion destroyed the vessel spectacularly, demoralizing the remaining Dutch ships which withdrew from combat. This victory established Chinese naval dominance around Taiwan and confined Dutch forces to their fortified positions ashore.

The Siege of Fort Zeelandia

Following his naval victory, Zheng laid siege to Fort Zeelandia, the primary Dutch stronghold. The fort’s modern fortifications presented a significant challenge, featuring thick walls designed to withstand contemporary artillery. Zheng implemented classic siege tactics, constructing earthworks and employing artillery positions while cutting Dutch supply lines.

The siege continued for nine months, during which both sides engaged in negotiations. Dutch representatives offered substantial financial incentives—reportedly 100,000 silver taels—for Zheng to withdraw his forces. Zheng rejected these offers unequivocally, stating that Taiwan constituted inherent Chinese territory that required no financial compensation for its liberation. His position reflected both strategic determination and philosophical commitment to territorial integrity.

The Final surrender

By January 1662, conditions within Fort Zeelandia had deteriorated critically. Zheng’s forces had successfully cut the water supply to the fortress, creating desperate conditions for the defenders. After failed attempts to secure reinforcements from Dutch bases in Indonesia, and with no prospect of breaking the siege, Dutch governor Frederick Coyett recognized the inevitability of defeat.

On February 1, 1662, Coyett signed formal surrender documents, ending thirty-eight years of Dutch colonial rule in Taiwan. The surrender terms allowed Dutch personnel to evacuate with personal possessions and guaranteed their safe passage from the island. This relatively generous treatment reflected Zheng’s adherence to Confucian principles of benevolent leadership even in victory.

Administration and Legacy in Taiwan

Following the expulsion of Dutch forces, Zheng established a Ming-loyalist administration in Taiwan that implemented significant economic and social reforms. He redistributed land previously controlled by Dutch colonists, established Confucian schools, and promoted agricultural development through improved irrigation systems. His administration maintained the island as a base for continued resistance against Qing authority while developing its economic potential.

Zheng’s sudden death in June 1662, just months after his victory, created leadership challenges that ultimately undermined the sustainability of his regime. His son Zheng Jing continued administering Taiwan until 1681, but without his father’s military genius and leadership qualities. The Qing Dynasty eventually incorporated Taiwan into its administration in 1683, but Zheng’s liberation established enduring principles of Chinese sovereignty over the island.

Historical Significance and Interpretation

Zheng Chenggong’s campaign represents one of the earliest successful Asian military actions against European colonial powers, preceding similar anti-colonial movements by centuries. His victory demonstrated that European technological advantages could be overcome through adaptive tactics, intelligence preparation, and popular support. The operation also established important precedents regarding China’s historical claims to Taiwan, which remain relevant in contemporary geopolitical discussions.

Modern interpretations vary across different historical traditions. Chinese historiography emphasizes Zheng’s role as a national hero who restored Chinese territory while maintaining loyalty to the Ming Dynasty. Western accounts sometimes focus more on the commercial implications of ending Dutch colonial expansion in East Asia. Taiwanese perspectives have evolved over time, with some emphasizing the Chinese nature of Zheng’s campaign while others highlight his establishment of independent administration on the island.

Conclusion: Enduring Historical Legacy

Zheng Chenggong’s liberation of Taiwan stands as a landmark event in early modern Asian history, representing the intersection of dynastic transition, colonial expansion, and military innovation. His successful campaign against a technologically superior European power demonstrated strategic sophistication that continues to be studied in military academies worldwide. Beyond immediate military significance, the operation established enduring principles regarding territorial sovereignty and anti-colonial resistance that would influence subsequent generations throughout Asia.

The historical narrative of Zheng’s campaign remains deeply embedded in cultural memory across East Asia, celebrated in literature, drama, and popular culture. His legacy embodies complex themes of loyalty, resistance, and leadership that continue to resonate in contemporary discussions about regional history and identity. As both a military commander and administrator, Zheng Chenggong established paradigms of governance and resistance that would influence subsequent developments throughout the region, ensuring his place among the most significant figures in early modern Asian history.