From Humble Beginnings to Military Leadership

In the sweltering summer of 1353, in the rural outskirts of Zhongli County near Haozhou (modern Fengyang, Anhui), a pivotal moment in Chinese history unfolded beneath a simple red flag planted before a thatched cottage. Here, among a group of young peasants, stood Zhu Yuanzhang, the future founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty, then just a minor rebel leader recruiting soldiers for the Red Turban uprising against the crumbling Yuan Dynasty.

Among those who answered the call was Xu Da, a 23-year-old farmer’s son who would become one of China’s most celebrated military commanders. Born in 1332 to a peasant family, Xu Da grew up tending cattle alongside Zhu Yuanzhang, forming a bond that would shape the course of Chinese history. His physical stature – tall and powerfully built with high cheekbones – matched his strong character and fearless nature, qualities that would serve him well in the turbulent years ahead.

The mid-14th century presented a landscape of suffering across China’s Huai River region. Decades of natural disasters, official neglect (particularly of crucial waterworks), and the oppressive policies of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty had left the population destitute and desperate. When the Red Turban Rebellion erupted in 1351 at Yellow River construction sites, it ignited pent-up frustrations that quickly spread like wildfire through central China and the Jianghuai region.

Rise Through the Ranks of Revolution

Xu Da’s military career began in earnest when he joined Zhu Yuanzhang’s personal retinue, quickly distinguishing himself among the “Huaixi Old Guard” – the core group of 24 commanders selected from the 700 recruits gathered in their home region. His early campaigns demonstrated both bravery and strategic acumen, particularly during the defense of Hezhou in 1355 when he volunteered as a hostage to secure Zhu Yuanzhang’s release from rival rebel forces.

As Zhu Yuanzhang’s power grew, so did Xu Da’s responsibilities. He played crucial roles in the Yangtze crossing that established Ming control over the fertile Taiping region and the subsequent capture of strategic locations like Zhenjiang. His disciplined approach to warfare – maintaining strict prohibitions against looting and protecting civilian populations – became a hallmark of Ming military operations and earned him Zhu Yuanzhang’s enduring trust.

The siege of Pingjiang (modern Suzhou) from 1366-1367 showcased Xu Da’s tactical brilliance. Employing the “siege reduction method,” his forces constructed elaborate encircling fortifications while using innovative siege towers (“enemy towers”) and artillery bombardments to gradually wear down the defenses of rival warlord Zhang Shicheng. The eventual fall of Pingjiang after ten grueling months eliminated Zhu Yuanzhang’s last major rival in southern China.

Architect of the Ming Dynasty’s Military Foundations

With southern China secured, Xu Da turned his attention to the ultimate prize – the Yuan capital of Dadu (Beijing). Appointed commander-in-chief of the Northern Expedition in 1367, he methodically advanced through Shandong and Henan before closing in on the Yuan heartland. His campaign demonstrated masterful coordination of infantry, cavalry, and naval forces while effectively utilizing propaganda declaring the Ming’s mission to “expel the barbarians and restore Chinese rule.”

The fall of Dadu in August 1368 marked the official end of Yuan rule, though Xu Da continued campaigning against remaining Yuan loyalists. His subsequent western expedition neutralized the formidable Yuan general Köke Temür (Wang Baobao) through a brilliant feint at Taiyuan, while his northwestern campaigns secured Shaanxi and Gansu against other Yuan remnants.

Xu Da’s military philosophy combined strategic vision with operational flexibility. He adapted tactics to local conditions, whether employing rapid cavalry strikes in the northern plains or methodical siege warfare against fortified cities. His emphasis on logistics – securing food supplies, maintaining supply lines, and utilizing local resources – ensured his armies could sustain prolonged campaigns far from their bases.

The Model Ming Commander: Discipline and Integrity

What set Xu Da apart from his contemporaries was his unwavering commitment to discipline and ethical conduct. In an era when warlords routinely pillaged conquered territories, Xu Da enforced strict prohibitions against looting and violence toward civilians. After capturing Dadu, he immediately posted guards to protect the Yuan imperial palace and its inhabitants while preventing his troops from disturbing the city’s residents.

His personal integrity was equally remarkable. Despite rising to the pinnacle of power as Left Chancellor and later Duke of Wei, Xu Da maintained a modest lifestyle and refused special privileges. He famously declined Zhu Yuanzhang’s offer of the former Wu princely palace as his residence, a gesture that deeply impressed the emperor.

Xu Da’s leadership style fostered intense loyalty among his subordinates. He shared hardships with common soldiers while maintaining clear hierarchies and expectations. His willingness to credit subordinates’ contributions and intervene to protect prisoners of war (as when he prevented Chang Yuchun from massacring surrendered Chen Youliang’s troops) earned him widespread respect.

Legacy of a Military Icon

Xu Da’s death in 1385 at age 53 marked the passing of Ming China’s greatest military mind. Zhu Yuanzhang mourned deeply, posthumously creating him Prince of Zhongshan and composing a memorial inscription praising him as “first among founding heroes.” His legacy endured through:

1. Institutional Foundations: The military systems and border defenses Xu Da established protected the early Ming for decades. His emphasis on agriculture-military colonies (tuntian) along the northern frontier became a Ming mainstay.

2. Strategic Paradigms: His campaigns against the Yuan remnants established templates for dealing with steppe threats that later Ming generals would emulate.

3. Ethical Standards: Xu Da set new benchmarks for military professionalism in Chinese history, proving that effective commanders need not resort to brutality.

4. Familial Connections: His descendants remained prominent in Ming politics, most notably through his daughter who became Empress Xu, wife of the Yongle Emperor.

The circumstances of Xu Da’s death remain controversial, with some accounts suggesting Zhu Yuanzhang orchestrated his demise – possibly via poisoned food – fearing his influence. While evidence is inconclusive, such stories reflect the tragic tensions between Ming founders as Zhu Yuanzhang grew increasingly paranoid about potential threats to his dynasty.

Xu Da’s life trajectory – from peasant to prince – encapsulated the social upheavals of his era. More than just a brilliant tactician, he embodied Confucian ideals of loyalty and humility while adapting to the practical demands of warfare. His ability to balance military necessity with humanitarian concerns set standards that would influence Chinese military thought for centuries, making him truly deserving of his place as first among Ming founding heroes.