A Dynasty in Crisis: The Fall of Beijing and the Rise of Southern Ming

The mid-17th century marked one of the most tumultuous periods in Chinese history. In 1644, Beijing fell to rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, prompting the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, to take his own life. Shortly after, the Manchu Qing dynasty seized control of the capital, establishing their rule over northern China. In the south, Ming loyalists scrambled to reorganize under a series of short-lived regimes, collectively known as the Southern Ming. Among these, the Longwu regime, led by the ambitious Zhu Yujian, emerged as one of the most determined resistance movements against the Qing conquest.

Unlike the earlier Hongguang regime, which had prioritized suppressing peasant rebellions over resisting the Manchus, the Longwu Emperor recognized the existential threat posed by the Qing. His strategic shift from “pacifying bandits” to “resisting the barbarians” reflected a broader awakening among Ming loyalists—a realization that survival required unity against a common enemy.

The Longwu Emperor: A Reluctant Reformer

Zhu Yujian, the Longwu Emperor, was an unlikely candidate for the throne. A distant relative of the imperial family, he had spent years imprisoned by the Ming court due to political intrigues. Yet, his unexpected ascension in 1645 brought a ruler with clear vision and reformist zeal.

One of his first acts was executing Ma Dechang, a Qing envoy sent to negotiate surrender—a bold statement of defiance. He then issued a stirring proclamation, vowing to lead a personal campaign against the invaders:

“The barbarians have defiled our ancestral temples and oppressed our people with forced haircuts and cruelty. I shall personally lead our armies to drive them out!”

Though his planned expedition was thwarted by the reluctance of key military leaders like Zheng Zhilong, the symbolic gesture galvanized resistance.

Breaking the Cycle of Factionalism

One of the Longwu Emperor’s most significant contributions was his attempt to dismantle the factional infighting that had plagued the late Ming. In a series of edicts, he condemned the destructive rivalries between the Donglin, Eunuch, and Ma factions, which he blamed for the dynasty’s collapse:

“The greatest calamity in our history has been the partisan strife among officials. The fall of both capitals and the suffering of two emperors stem from this poison.”

He adopted a policy of reconciliation, pardoning former political adversaries—including the controversial Hongguang official Ma Shiying—provided they joined the anti-Qing cause. This pragmatic approach, though criticized by hardliners, demonstrated his understanding that survival required unity.

A King for the People: Reforms and Compassion

Unlike many of his predecessors, Zhu Yujian was deeply concerned with the welfare of ordinary citizens. He enacted strict anti-corruption measures, decreeing that “petty corruption warrants flogging; grand corruption warrants execution.” Officials found guilty of extortion were swiftly punished, earning him popular support.

His most striking policy, however, was his stance on the infamous Qing “queue order,” which forced Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu hairstyle as a sign of submission. While Qing forces executed those who refused, the Longwu Emperor declared:

“Those with hair are loyal subjects; those without are victims of oppression.”

This humane distinction prevented needless killings and won over many displaced refugees, strengthening his base.

The Limits of Leadership: Challenges and Downfall

Despite his virtues, the Longwu Emperor faced insurmountable obstacles. His regime was financially and militarily weak, reliant on unreliable warlords like the Zheng family. Territorial disputes with rival Ming claimants, such as the Prince of Lu, further fractured resistance efforts.

A telling episode was his desperate attempt to secure legitimacy by offering succession rights to competing princes—first to the Prince of Lu as his “imperial nephew,” then later to the Prince of Gui. These political maneuvers, though shrewd, exposed the fragility of his position.

When his consort gave birth to a son in 1646, Zhu Yujian celebrated lavishly, even as Qing forces advanced. Critics like official Qian Bangqi lambasted the extravagance:

“The heir’s birth coincides with Zhejiang’s fall. This is a time for shared grief, not feasts!”

Within months, the Qing overran Fujian. The Longwu Emperor was captured and executed, his dreams of restoration unfulfilled.

Legacy: The Last Gasp of Ming Idealism

The Longwu regime lasted barely a year, yet its impact endured. By allying with former peasant rebels and prioritizing anti-Qing resistance, it set a precedent for later Southern Ming efforts. Its policies—particularly the inclusive approach to victims of Manchu oppression—contrasted sharply with Qing brutality, fostering lasting resentment that fueled rebellions for decades.

Historians debate whether Zhu Yujian could have succeeded under different circumstances. His personal integrity, political acumen, and genuine concern for his subjects set him apart from other Southern Ming rulers. Yet, as one Ming loyalist lamented:

“He was a ruler fit for better times. But in an age of chaos, even the wisest monarch could not stem the tide.”

The Longwu Emperor’s story remains a poignant chapter in China’s imperial decline—a fleeting glimpse of what might have been, had unity prevailed over division.