From Darkness to Light: The Evolution of Nighttime in Ancient China

For centuries, the nights of imperial China remained shrouded in darkness. During the Han (206 BCE–220 CE) and Tang (618–907) dynasties, once the sun set, most urban and rural areas plunged into obscurity, with only the elite enjoying limited illumination. This changed dramatically during the Song Dynasty (960–1279), when Chinese cities became vibrant hubs of nighttime activity.

Historical records like The Eastern Capital: A Dream of Splendor (东京梦华录) describe how Song-era capitals like Kaifeng and Hangzhou buzzed with life after dark. Restaurants glowed with lanterns, theaters hosted performances until dawn, and markets thrived under the flicker of countless lamps. This nocturnal renaissance was made possible by two critical innovations: the widespread adoption of plant-based lamp oils and the mass production of affordable candles—developments that reshaped social rhythms and economic patterns.

The Fuel That Lit the Night: From Animal Fat to Vegetable Oil

Early Chinese lighting relied heavily on animal-derived fuels. Han Dynasty bronze lamps, such as the exquisite 2nd-century BCE “Goose and Fish Lamp” (彩绘雁鱼青铜釭灯) discovered in Shanxi, were designed to burn animal tallow. These oils produced dim, smoky flames with unpleasant odors—luxuries only the wealthy could tolerate.

By the Song era, a quiet revolution had occurred. Southern Song scholar Zhuang Chuo’s Miscellany of Chicken Ribs (鸡肋编) documents the shift to superior plant-based oils:

– Sesame oil (胡麻油): Prized for its clean burn
– Tung oil (桐油): Widely used but smokier
– Rapeseed oil (蔓菁子油): Popular in northern regions

These vegetable fuels burned brighter and cleaner than animal fats, eliminating the need for complex Han-era lamp designs with smoke ducts. Simpler ceramic lamps became ubiquitous, putting illumination within reach of common households.

Democratizing Light: The Rise of Affordable Lighting

Han Dynasty lighting tools were engineering marvels—bronze masterpieces with adjustable shades and water-filtered smoke systems. Yet their complexity reflected their exclusivity. As the Tang poet’s allusion to “borrowing light through a wall” (凿壁偷光) suggests, most Han citizens lived in darkness after sunset.

Song-era archaeological finds tell a different story. Excavations reveal thousands of modest ceramic lamps—like the five-wick celadon lamp (青釉洗式五管器) from Sichuan—designed for practicality, not prestige. Paintings like Liang Kai’s Sericulture Scroll (蚕织图卷) show even thatched-roof homes illuminated nightly.

This lighting revolution had profound societal impacts:

1. Extended work hours: Textile workers could “spin together by lamplight” (相从夜绩) without sharing tools
2. Relaxed curfews: The Tang-era night watch system (夜禁制度) faded as streets stayed bright
3. New leisure culture: Night markets, theaters, and 24-hour eateries flourished

Candles: From Royal Luxury to Household Staple

While oil lamps illuminated common spaces, another transformation was occurring with candles. Early “honey candles” (蜜烛) of the Han-Jin period, made from rare beeswax, were exclusive to emperors and aristocrats like the legendary extravagant Shi Chong (石崇).

The Song Dynasty saw three critical advancements:

1. White wax innovation: Harvested from scale insects (蜡虫), this harder wax allowed longer, drip-resistant candles
2. Mass production: Zhejiang farmers cultivated wax insects with profits rivaling silk production
3. Specialized crafts: Hangzhou hosted candle-making guilds (修香浇烛作) and shops like the famed Tong Family Wax Shop (童家桕烛铺)

Artistic evidence abounds:

– Ma Lin’s Enjoying the Night by Candlelight (秉烛夜游图) depicts slender tapers
– Anonymous Song Night Banquet paintings show candles central to social gatherings
– The Dream of Liang (梦粱录) records candles used in weddings and “grab-the-object” (抓周) ceremonies

The Economics of Illumination

Lighting costs reveal its democratization:

– Lamp oil: 4-5 cash per night (a scholar’s study budget)
– Standard candles: 18-20 cash each (10% of a laborer’s daily wage)
– Luxury candles: Up to 400 cash (official ceremonial use)

While oil remained cheaper—Ouyang Xiu praised the frugal Chancellor Du Yan (杜衍) for using “a single oil lamp”—candles became accessible enough that officials like Kou Zhun (寇准) could famously burn them all night, leaving “piles of wax in his outhouse.”

Legacy: How Song Lighting Shaped Modern Life

The Song lighting revolution created patterns we still follow today:

1. 24-hour urban economies: The night market tradition continues across East Asia
2. Shift work: Extended illumination enabled staggered labor schedules
3. Leisure culture: Theater, dining, and shopping became nighttime activities

As electricity now fulfills the role once played by oil and wax, we might reflect on how these humble technologies first broke the ancient tyranny of darkness—and in doing so, helped invent the vibrant nightlife we now take for granted. Just as digital payments are replacing paper currency today, the story of lighting reminds us that even ordinary objects carry extraordinary histories of innovation and social change.

What other everyday items might reveal surprising historical transformations? The evolution of tea preparation, perhaps, or the journey from bamboo slips to paper books? The past illuminates the present—sometimes quite literally.