The Warrior Roots of the Manchu People

The Manchus, a people renowned for their martial traditions, rose to power through their exceptional horsemanship and military discipline, ultimately establishing the Qing Dynasty in 1644. From its inception, the Qing emperors upheld these warrior values, ensuring that martial training remained a cornerstone of imperial education. Emperor Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) embodied this tradition, excelling in both archery and mounted combat. Beginning in 1741, he initiated the grand Mulan autumn hunts, an annual military exercise designed to showcase the prowess of the Eight Banner armies and reinforce their readiness for battle.

Under Qianlong’s leadership, the Qing Empire reached its zenith, expanding its borders and consolidating control over vast territories. His military campaigns—known as the “Ten Great Campaigns”—secured the empire’s frontiers, but they also revealed the darker side of Qing expansionism, including aggressive actions against smaller neighboring states.

The Pacification of the Dzungars

### The Strategic Dilemma

By the mid-18th century, the Dzungar Khanate in Central Asia had become a persistent threat to Qing stability. Factional infighting among the Dzungar leaders presented Qianlong with a critical choice: ignore their internal strife or intervene militarily to bring them under Qing rule. After heated debates among his advisors, Qianlong opted for a decisive campaign, declaring in 1754:

> “The opportunity must not be lost. Next year, we shall advance with two armies straight to Ili.”

### The First Blunder: Reliance on Amursana

Qianlong’s initial strategy hinged on exploiting divisions within the Dzungar leadership. When Amursana, a rival Dzungar chieftain, defected to the Qing with 20,000 followers, Qianlong saw an opportunity to use him as a proxy. He appointed Amursana as deputy commander of the northern expedition, hoping to minimize Qing casualties by letting Dzungar forces fight each other.

The plan initially succeeded—Amursana’s forces captured Ili in 1755, and the Dzungar leader Dawachi fled. However, Qianlong’s reliance on Amursana backfired when the ambitious chieftain, now emboldened by his victories, rebelled against Qing authority. By 1756, Amursana had besieged Qing garrisons, forcing the suicide of two high-ranking Qing officials.

### The Second Blunder: Premature Withdrawal

Compounding his earlier mistake, Qianlong withdrew most Qing troops from Dzungaria, leaving only a token force to oversee the region. This allowed Amursana to consolidate power and rally anti-Qing factions. Realizing his error, Qianlong abandoned his “use barbarians to control barbarians” policy and launched a full-scale invasion in 1757. By 1758, the Qing had crushed the rebellion, and Amursana fled to Russia, where he died of smallpox.

The Conquest of the Uyghurs

### The Betrayal of the Khoja Brothers

With the Dzungars subdued, Qianlong turned his attention to the Muslim Uyghur leaders in Xinjiang—the Khoja brothers, Burhanuddin and Khoja Jihan. Initially, Burhanuddin favored submission to the Qing, while Jihan sought independence. When Jihan executed a Qing envoy in 1757, Qianlong ordered a punitive expedition.

### Military Setbacks and Recovery

The first Qing campaign, led by the inexperienced general Yarhasan, failed due to negligence—Jihan escaped a siege while Yarhasan played chess. Qianlong, furious, executed the general and dispatched the seasoned commander Zhao Hui. However, Zhao Hui’s rushed advance with only 800 men led to disaster at the Battle of Black Water Camp, where his forces were surrounded for three months before reinforcements arrived.

Learning from these failures, Qianlong adopted a more methodical approach. By 1759, Zhao Hui’s reinforced army crushed the rebellion, and Jihan was beheaded by a rival chieftain. Xinjiang was fully incorporated into the Qing Empire.

Securing Tibet: The Gurkha Wars

### The First Gurkha Invasion (1788)

Tibet’s strategic importance had long been recognized by the Qing. However, in 1788, the Gurkhas of Nepal invaded, lured by the riches of the Panchen Lama’s treasury. Qianlong responded with a multi-pronged defense, mobilizing Sichuan troops and securing Tibetan cooperation. A hasty peace agreement—negotiated by the corrupt official Bazhong—required Tibet to pay annual indemnities, a deal Qianlong later regretted.

### The Second Gurkha Invasion (1791) and Reforms

When the Gurkhas, dissatisfied with unpaid tributes, invaded again in 1791, Qianlong acted decisively. He appointed the capable general Fukang’an, who routed the Gurkhas and advanced deep into Nepal. Facing stiff resistance near Kathmandu, Qianlong accepted a negotiated peace, securing Nepal’s submission as a Qing tributary.

To prevent future instability, Qianlong introduced two key reforms:
1. The Golden Urn System: A lottery to select reincarnations of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama, reducing foreign interference.
2. The Imperial Regulations for Tibet (1793): Centralizing Qing control over Tibetan governance, military, and foreign affairs.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

Qianlong’s campaigns expanded China’s borders to their greatest historical extent, but they also revealed the costs of overextension. His reliance on proxy forces in Dzungaria and initial mismanagement in Tibet underscored the challenges of governing a multi-ethnic empire.

Today, his policies in Xinjiang and Tibet remain contentious, with modern China citing his conquests as historical justification for its territorial claims. The Golden Urn System still influences Tibetan Buddhism, illustrating the enduring impact of Qianlong’s rule on China’s frontier regions.

Ultimately, Qianlong’s reign epitomized the Qing’s martial ethos—brilliant in its victories, flawed in its excesses, and enduring in its legacy.