The Origins of the Imperial Succession Theory

The idea that medieval empires were not new creations but continuations of the ancient Roman Empire lies at the heart of the translatio imperii (translation of empire) doctrine. This theory, which emerged in the mid-10th century and gained widespread acceptance by the late 11th century, argued that the Roman Empire had been passed down—first to the Greeks, then to the Franks, and eventually to the Germanic rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.

Otto of Freising, a 12th-century bishop and uncle to Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, articulated this belief when reflecting on Otto the Great’s imperial coronation in 962. He described it as a “return of power”—the Roman Empire, after passing through the hands of the Franks and Lombards, had been restored to the Germans (or, as some argued, back to the Franks, who had temporarily lost it). This narrative was not merely historical but deeply theological, rooted in early Christian apocalyptic thought.

The Theological Foundations: Rome as the Restrainer of Chaos

The medieval obsession with imperial continuity had profound religious motivations. Early Christians, including the Apostle Paul, initially expected the imminent return of Christ. When this did not occur, theologians sought explanations for the delay. A key text, 2 Thessalonians 2 (likely not written by Paul but attributed to him), introduced the concept of the Katechon—the “restrainer” holding back the rise of the Antichrist.

By the 10th century, this idea had evolved. Adso of Montier-en-Der, a Benedictine monk, penned Libellus de Antichristo (954), arguing that the Roman Empire itself was the divine “restrainer.” As long as it endured in some form, the Antichrist could not emerge, and the end times would be postponed. This belief fused imperial legitimacy with cosmic significance, making the survival of Rome’s legacy a matter of salvation history.

The Four World Empires and the Westward March of Power

Medieval scholars expanded this theology through the “Four Empires” framework, derived from the Book of Daniel. According to this schema, world history unfolded through successive dominions:

1. Babylon
2. Medo-Persia
3. Macedonia (Alexander’s Empire)
4. Rome

Otto of Freising, in his Chronicle of the Two Cities, linked this progression to the translatio imperii. He emphasized a westward trajectory—from the East (Babylon) to the West (Rome and its successors)—suggesting that the final empire’s endurance delayed the apocalypse. This idea gave Germanic rulers like Otto I a sacred mandate: by upholding the Roman legacy, they were holding back chaos.

Political Legitimacy and the Holy Roman Empire

The imperial succession myth became a cornerstone of medieval political theology. When Otto the Great was crowned emperor by Pope John XII in 962, it was framed not as a new beginning but as a revival of Charlemagne’s empire—which itself claimed descent from Rome. This continuity was crucial for legitimacy:

– Symbolic Authority: Roman titles and rituals (e.g., coronations) reinforced rulers’ divine right.
– Papal Collaboration: The Church endorsed the narrative, intertwining spiritual and temporal power.
– Germanic Identity: By the 12th century, German chroniclers portrayed their rulers as Rome’s true heirs, sidelining the Byzantines.

Frederick Barbarossa leveraged this ideology to justify his Italian campaigns, presenting himself as the restorer of universal imperial order.

Cultural Impact: The Empire as a Sacred Institution

The myth permeated medieval culture:

– Art and Iconography: Imperial imagery (eagles, Roman-style busts) adorned coins and manuscripts.
– Literature: Epic works like the Kaiserchronik celebrated the unbroken line from Caesar to Germanic kings.
– Law: Justinian’s Corpus Juris Civilis was studied as a living tradition, not a relic.

Even critiques of the empire, such as Dante’s De Monarchia, accepted the premise of Rome’s eternal significance.

Legacy and Modern Echoes

The translatio imperii concept faded after the Reformation, but its echoes endure:

– National Myths: Napoleonic France and Wilhelmine Germany both invoked Roman imagery.
– EU Symbolism: The European Union’s Latin motto (In Varietate Concordia) and starry flag subtly nod to the idea of a united, Roman-inspired Europe.
– Academic Debates: Historians still analyze how medieval constructs shape modern identities.

The belief that empires never truly die—only transform—remains a powerful lens for understanding Europe’s political imagination.

Conclusion: The Enduring Shadow of Rome

The medieval theory of imperial succession was more than propaganda; it was a fusion of history, theology, and politics that shaped a millennium of European thought. By framing themselves as Rome’s heirs, rulers like Otto the Great and Frederick Barbarossa claimed a legitimacy that transcended mere power—it was a divine mission to preserve order against chaos. Today, while the apocalyptic fears have waned, the allure of Rome’s legacy persists, a testament to the enduring power of historical myth.