Introduction: A Decade of Psychological Revolution

The 1960s marked a transformative period for psychology, elevating it from an emerging discipline to a respected scientific field. Universities and high schools worldwide began incorporating psychology into their curricula, reflecting growing public and academic interest in understanding human behavior. This era witnessed groundbreaking research that challenged conventional notions of morality, perception, and social interaction. Two particularly influential studies emerged in 1963 that would forever change our understanding of human nature: Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments and the remarkable case of Sidney Bradford’s restored vision. These investigations not only advanced scientific knowledge but also provoked profound ethical and philosophical discussions that continue to resonate today.

The Historical Context of Social Psychology

During the mid-1960s, psychology flourished as researchers explored increasingly sophisticated questions about human behavior. Social psychology in particular gained prominence as scholars investigated how individuals respond to emergencies, invasions of personal space, and perhaps most significantly, how people respond to authority figures. This focus on social dynamics emerged against the backdrop of post-World War II reflections on collective behavior and the atrocities committed under authoritarian regimes.

Simultaneously, technological advancements like the electroencephalogram provided unprecedented glimpses into the working human brain. Neuroscience began intersecting with psychological research, creating new avenues for understanding the biological underpinnings of behavior. This convergence of social inquiry and technological innovation created a fertile environment for revolutionary experiments that would challenge fundamental assumptions about human nature.

Stanley Milgram and the Obedience Experiments

Stanley Milgram, a Yale University psychology professor, designed one of the most controversial and influential studies in psychological history. His work was inspired by writer Charles Percy Snow’s 1961 observation that “more terrible crimes have been committed in the name of obedience than in the name of rebellion.” Milgram sought to understand how ordinary people could commit horrific acts when following orders, particularly relevant in the wake of World War II, where millions had been killed in concentration camps under the direction of authority figures.

### The Experimental Design

Milgram recruited 40 participants for what was presented as a study on punishment and memory. Each participant arrived at Yale’s laboratory where they encountered another “participant” and a stern researcher in a lab coat. Through a rigged drawing, all actual participants were assigned the role of “teacher,” while the accomplice always became the “learner.”

The teachers observed the learner being strapped to a chair with electrodes attached to their wrists. When concerns about safety were raised, the researcher assured them that while the shocks would be painful, they would cause no permanent damage. The teacher was then taken to a separate room and could communicate with the learner only through a microphone and headphones.

The procedure required teachers to read word pairs to the learner, who would then be tested on their memory. For each incorrect answer, the teacher was instructed to administer an electric shock using a generator with 30 switches ranging from 15 volts . Before beginning, teachers received a sample 45-volt shock to convince them of the generator’s authenticity.

### The Shocking Results

The learner, following a predetermined script, intentionally provided wrong answers. As the shocks increased to 300 volts, the learner would pound on the wall and then fall silent. At this point, most teachers expressed concern and asked the researcher whether they should continue. The researcher responded with a series of increasingly firm prompts: “Please continue,” “The experiment requires that you continue,” “It is absolutely essential that you continue,” and “You have no other choice, you must continue.”

Contrary to predictions by psychiatrists who estimated that only 3% of participants would continue to the highest voltage, every single teacher continued past 300 volts, and 26 of the 40 participants administered the maximum 450-volt shock. Participants showed extreme stress during the experiment—sweating, trembling, groaning, digging their fingernails into their palms, and some even bursting into nervous laughter. Yet they continued to obey the authority figure’s instructions.

The Case of Sidney Bradford: Perception Regained

While Milgram explored social obedience, other researchers were making breakthroughs in understanding perception and cognition. In 1963, psychologists Richard L. Gregory and J.G. Wallace documented the extraordinary case of Sidney Bradford, a man who regained his sight after 50 years of blindness.

### A Life in Darkness

Born in 1906, Bradford lost his sight at just 10 months old following smallpox vaccination. He attended a school for the blind in Birmingham, England, where his intelligence became apparent. He excelled at mental arithmetic and learned to recognize plastic capital letters through touch. Despite his blindness, Bradford developed remarkable independence and skills in woodworking, weaving, and boot repair. He eventually established a successful boot repair business that he operated from his home.

### The Miracle of Vision Restored

At age 50, Bradford underwent a corneal transplant that restored vision to one eye. For the first time since infancy, he could see. Researchers Gregory and Wallace documented his extraordinary journey as he learned to interpret visual information that most people acquire in childhood.

Bradford’s case provided unprecedented insights into the relationship between sensory experience and perceptual development. He could immediately recognize objects he had previously known only through touch, but struggled with depth perception, perspective, and complex visual interpretations. His experience demonstrated that perception is not simply a matter of receiving sensory input but requires learning and interpretation—a revolutionary concept at the time.

Cultural and Social Impacts

Both studies had profound implications beyond academic psychology, influencing how society understood human behavior and perception.

### The Obedience Experiments’ Ethical Aftermath

Milgram’s research sparked intense ethical debates about psychological experimentation. Critics questioned whether the potential psychological harm to participants justified the knowledge gained. This controversy ultimately led to the development of stricter ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects, including mandatory debriefing procedures and greater emphasis on informed consent.

The findings also forced society to confront uncomfortable truths about human nature. The experiments demonstrated that ordinary people, when placed in certain situations, could commit acts contrary to their moral beliefs. This had implications for understanding historical events like the Holocaust and contemporary issues regarding military conduct, corporate ethics, and institutional behavior.

### Changing Perceptions of Perception

Bradford’s case challenged assumptions about sensory experience and brain development. It demonstrated the brain’s plasticity and the critical period for visual development, showing that certain perceptual skills must be acquired early in life. This research influenced education methods for children with visual impairments and contributed to our understanding of how the brain organizes sensory information.

The case also captured public imagination, appearing in popular media and raising philosophical questions about the nature of reality and perception. It highlighted the complex relationship between sensory input and cognitive interpretation, suggesting that what we “see” is as much a product of our brain’s processing as it is of external reality.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

More than half a century later, both studies continue to influence psychology and broader society.

### The Enduring Influence of Milgram’s Work

Milgram’s obedience research remains a cornerstone of social psychology textbooks and continues to be replicated in modified forms across cultures. His findings have been applied to understand events ranging from the Stanford Prison Experiment to real-world atrocities like the My Lai massacre and Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse.

The research continues to inform discussions about moral responsibility in hierarchical structures, from corporations to military organizations. It has influenced legal proceedings where the “just following orders” defense is invoked, prompting deeper examination of individual accountability within systems.

Modern technology has allowed neuroscientists to explore the biological mechanisms behind obedience, using fMRI scans to identify brain activity patterns associated with conformity and resistance to authority. This integration of social psychology and neuroscience represents the continued evolution of the field that began in the 1960s.

### Bradford’s Contribution to Modern Neuroscience

The detailed documentation of Bradford’s visual restoration provided foundational knowledge for understanding neuroplasticity—the brain’s ability to reorganize itself. This concept has become central to rehabilitation approaches for stroke victims, people with brain injuries, and those with sensory impairments.

Contemporary research on sensory substitution devices builds directly on the insights gained from studying Bradford’s experience. His case continues to inform debates about critical periods in development and the possibilities for acquiring skills typically learned in childhood.

Conclusion: Psychology’s Enduring Questions

The psychological landmarks of 1963 represent two different approaches to understanding human nature—one exploring how social contexts shape behavior, the other examining how sensory experience shapes perception. Together, they illustrate psychology’s dual focus on both our external relationships and internal processes.

Milgram’s obedience experiments revealed the powerful influence of situation and authority on moral behavior, challenging the notion that character alone determines actions. Bradford’s case demonstrated the complex interplay between innate biological capacities and learned experience in constructing our perception of reality.

These studies emerged during a period of remarkable growth in psychology, when new technologies and methodological approaches allowed researchers to address questions that had previously been philosophical speculations. Their legacy continues not only in ongoing research but in how we understand ourselves as both social beings and perceptual organisms.

The 1960s established psychology as a discipline that could simultaneously provide scientific insights and provoke profound ethical and philosophical reflection—a dual role that continues to define the field today. As we continue to grapple with questions about authority, morality, perception, and human nature, we build upon the foundation laid by these pioneering studies from a transformative decade in psychological science.