The Scholar-General Behind the Treatise

He Qufei (c. 11th century), styled Zhengtong, hailed from Pucheng in modern Fujian province during China’s Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127). Unlike many military theorists who were career soldiers, He belonged to the scholar-official class, reflecting the Song era’s unique integration of civil and martial traditions. His Bei Lun (Treatise on Preparedness) originally comprised 28 essays, with 26 surviving today. This work systematically analyzes military campaigns from the Warring States period (475–221 BCE) through the turbulent Five Dynasties era (907–960), evaluating 22 historical commanders to distill timeless strategic principles.

The Northern Song context proves crucial—while the dynasty pioneered advancements in arts and technology, it faced persistent threats from the Khitan Liao and Tangut Western Xia empires. He wrote not as an armchair philosopher but as a pragmatic thinker addressing his nation’s military vulnerabilities, particularly the Song army’s chronic issues with discipline and effectiveness despite numerical superiority.

The Philosophy of Just Warfare

Central to Bei Lun is the revolutionary concept that “war must be waged for righteousness.” Through case studies like Emperor Wu of Han’s expansionist campaigns (141–87 BCE) or Fu Jian’s disastrous defeat at the Fei River (383 CE), He argues that moral legitimacy determines military success:

“Some wars must be fought—even if sage rulers like Shun or King Tai would hesitate—while others must be avoided, regardless of warmongers like Chiyou or Qin Shi Huang’s appetite for battle.”

This nuanced stance rejected both pacifism and militarism, insisting that conflicts must align with societal needs. He illustrates this with historical paradoxes—states that neglected defense perished (e.g., Later Tang Dynasty), while those addicted to conquest collapsed (e.g., Qin Dynasty). His “righteous momentum” theory posited that ethically justified armies develop an unconquerable psychological advantage, anticipating Sun Tzu’s shi (strategic momentum) while adding a Confucian ethical dimension.

Discipline Over Numbers: A Military Revolution

Addressing the Song army’s chronic weaknesses, Bei Lun delivers a startling thesis: “Victory depends not on troop numbers but on cohesion—a smaller force fighting as one will defeat disorganized multitudes.” This countered prevailing Song doctrines that prioritized mass conscription.

He’s disciplinary framework had three pillars:
1. Structural Rigor: “Armies that discard discipline perish”—strict hierarchies and clear duties were non-negotiable, even if unpopular.
2. Moral Conditioning: Soldiers must internalize their purpose beyond mere obedience, fostering what modern militaries call “unit cohesion.”
3. Adaptive Training: Drills should simulate real chaos, preparing troops for the “fog of war” rather than parade-ground formalism.

Historical examples abound. He praises the Han general Zhou Yafu (d. 143 BCE), whose garrisons remained combat-ready despite imperial theatrics, while criticizing Tang commanders who tolerated laxity. This emphasis on quality over quantity foreshadowed later professional armies.

The Primacy of Strategic Intelligence

While acknowledging the roles of momentum (shi) and courage (yong), Bei Lun elevates wisdom (zhi) as the supreme military virtue:

“Momentum-driven forces collapse when it wanes; courage-reliant armies are captured when exhausted. Only wisdom delivers consistent victory.”

This intelligence operates on two levels:
– Tactical Flexibility: Knowing when to attack or defend based on real-time assessments, not predetermined plans.
– Systemic Thinking: “Great achievements stem from adaptability; failures from rigidity.” He cites the Battle of Red Cliffs (208 CE), where Zhou Yu’s adaptive tactics defeated Cao Cao’s numerically superior but inflexible navy.

Most strikingly, He warns against slavish adherence to classical texts like Sunzi Bingfa: “War emerges from principles, but no manual contains all solutions.” This anticipates modern “mission-type tactics,” where commanders apply doctrine contextually rather than dogmatically.

The Curious Case of the Su Shu

While not He Qufei’s work, the pseudonymous Su Shu (Book of Plainness) reflects Northern Song’s intellectual climate. Attributed to the mythical Huang Shigong (but likely penned by scholar Zhang Shangying), this text merges Confucian ethics with military pragmatism:

– Moral Foundations: Opening with the Confucian quintet—benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trust—it insists these virtues underpin effective strategy.
– Strategic Patience: “Dwell in obscurity awaiting your moment”—a Taoist-inflected concept repurposed for career advancement.
– Operational Secrecy: “Leaked plans bring defeat,” echoing Sunzi while applying it to court politics.

This Confucianization of military thought mirrored the Song elite’s broader project to civilize warfare, though He Qufei’s Bei Lun maintained a sharper operational focus.

Legacy: From Medieval Manuals to Modern Strategy

He Qufei’s insights transcended his era:
– Military Reform: His discipline-over-numbers approach influenced later dynasties like the Ming, whose professional weisuo troops replaced mass levies.
– Philosophical Impact: The “just war” theory resonated in East Asian statecraft, shaping Joseon Korea and Tokugawa Japan’s military ethics.
– Modern Parallels: His warnings about rigid doctrine anticipate critiques of Vietnam-era U.S. tactics or Russia’s initial failures in Ukraine.

The Bei Lun remains studied at China’s National Defense University, not as historical artifact but as a living text—proof that 11th-century wisdom on adaptability, moral legitimacy, and leadership still speaks to an uncertain world. In an age of AI warfare and hybrid conflicts, He Qufei’s insistence on human judgment over mechanistic solutions feels strikingly contemporary. As he might say: “Principles guide, but only wisdom wins.”