The Origins of the Ming-Dutch Conflict

The early 17th century witnessed a dramatic shift in global trade dynamics when Portugal fell under Spanish control in 1580. This geopolitical change disrupted traditional trade routes, forcing English and Dutch merchants to seek alternative sources for coveted Asian goods like spices and silk. The Dutch, more proactive than their English counterparts, began sending both warships and merchant vessels to East Asia as early as the late 16th century.

By 1596, Dutch forces had expelled the Portuguese from Banten (in modern Indonesia), seizing and selling Portuguese merchandise. Their attempts to establish direct trade with China in 1604 and 1607 were thwarted by Portuguese authorities in Macau, compelling the Dutch to acquire Chinese goods through smugglers in Hirado (Japan) and Java. This set the stage for escalating tensions that would culminate in direct conflict between the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Ming China.

The Escalation of Hostilities

In May 1622, under the command of Cornelis Reijersen, a Dutch fleet of 15 ships attacked Macau but suffered a devastating defeat with nearly 300 casualties. Undeterred, Reijersen redirected his remaining force of 8 ships and 1,024 crew members to occupy the Penghu Islands (Pescadores) in June 1622. The Dutch constructed Fort Zeelandia (known as Fenggui Castle to the Chinese) and requested trade relations with the Ming government, which was promptly refused due to their unauthorized occupation.

The conflict intensified when Dutch ships raided coastal areas near Xiamen in December 1622. Ming forces under General Xu Yiming engaged the Dutch in fierce battles, eventually forcing their retreat after significant losses on both sides. The Dutch introduced formidable new artillery pieces that the Chinese called “red barbarian cannons” (红夷炮), which were superior to existing Ming artillery in range, accuracy, and destructive power.

Technological and Tactical Developments

The Dutch artillery made a profound impression on Ming officials. These cannons, often weighing several tons, could fire iron shot weighing 10-20 jin (approximately 6-12 kg) with remarkable precision. Their design featured gradually thickening barrels from muzzle to breech, trunnions for elevation adjustment, and sophisticated sighting mechanisms—all representing significant advancements in artillery technology.

Contemporary records describe Dutch warships as “towering like mountains” with hulls “three chi (about 1 meter) thick” that could withstand heavy seas. Their largest vessels carried 7-8 whole-culverins (firing 18-pound shot) and numerous demi-culverins (9-pound shot), giving them substantial firepower advantages in naval engagements.

Diplomatic Maneuvering and Failed Negotiations

Despite military setbacks, the Dutch persisted in seeking trade privileges. In January 1623, Reijersen met with Fujian officials, insisting that only the VOC governor-general in Batavia could authorize withdrawal from Penghu. This led to a Ming diplomatic mission to Batavia in December 1623, where Chinese envoys Huang Hexing and Chen Shiying presented their demands.

The negotiations revealed fundamental differences: while the Ming sought to maintain existing trade patterns through Chinese merchants, the Dutch aimed to establish direct trade and monopolize China’s foreign commerce. The VOC governor-general argued that twenty-two years of peaceful trade requests had been ignored, justifying their aggressive approach as necessary to “make China hear our demands.”

The Penghu Campaign and Dutch Withdrawal

In 1624, newly appointed Fujian Governor Nan Juyi launched a determined campaign to expel the Dutch from Penghu. After months of siege operations that cut off Dutch water supplies, the Ming forces, now numbering 3,000 troops, prepared for a final assault in July. Facing certain defeat, the Dutch dismantled Fort Zeelandia and withdrew on July 13, 1624.

The conflict had devastating human costs. Dutch records reveal they enslaved over 1,150 Chinese civilians during their occupation, with more than half perishing from harsh conditions. Only 98 survivors reached Batavia, highlighting the brutality of early colonial enterprises.

The Rise of Zheng Zhilong

The aftermath of the Ming-Dutch conflict saw the emergence of Zheng Zhilong, a fascinating figure who would dominate East Asian maritime affairs. Born in Fujian, Zheng spent his youth in Macau and Japan, converting to Catholicism and acquiring valuable linguistic and commercial skills. By 1624, he served as interpreter during Ming-Dutch negotiations before establishing his own maritime empire.

Zheng’s forces combined Chinese, Japanese, African, and European elements. His navy included black Christian soldiers recruited from Macau, renowned as excellent arquebusiers. Unlike traditional pirates, Zheng practiced selective predation—targeting wealthy merchants while aiding impoverished coastal communities, earning him both fear and loyalty.

The Battle of Liaoluo Bay (1633)

The climax of Ming-Dutch hostilities occurred at Liaoluo Bay in October 1633. Dutch commander Hans Putmans, allied with pirate Liu Xiang, faced a combined Ming-Zheng fleet of 150 vessels. The battle marked China’s first large-scale naval engagement featuring extensive artillery exchanges.

Ming tactics emphasized fire ships—small vessels packed with combustibles—that wreaked havoc among Dutch formations. Contemporary accounts describe the ferocity: “Cannon fire shook mountains and made the sea boil” as both sides suffered heavy casualties. The Ming victory forced Dutch withdrawal and established Zheng Zhilong as the dominant power in East Asian waters.

Legacy and Lasting Impact

The Ming-Dutch conflict and Zheng Zhilong’s rise had profound consequences:

1. Military Modernization: Ming forces rapidly adopted Western artillery technology, with coastal defenses and warships increasingly equipped with “red barbarian cannons.”

2. Maritime Control: Zheng’s naval supremacy created a quasi-official protection system where merchant ships paid for safe passage—generating enormous wealth.

3. Regional Stability: By eliminating rival pirates and neutralizing Dutch threats, Zheng created conditions for flourishing maritime trade until the Ming collapse in 1644.

4. Colonial Deterrence: The conflict demonstrated China’s capacity to resist European colonial ambitions, delaying significant Western incursions for decades.

This pivotal period illustrates the complex interplay of commerce, technology, and power in early modern East Asia, setting the stage for subsequent developments under Zheng’s more famous son, Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong), who would expel the Dutch from Taiwan in 1662.