The Rise of the Ming and the Northern Yuan’s Last Stand

In the mid-14th century, as the Ming Dynasty consolidated its rule over China proper, a formidable challenge remained on its northern frontiers. The remnants of the Yuan Dynasty, now known as the Northern Yuan, maintained their claim to imperial legitimacy from their base in the Mongolian steppes. This period marked a critical juncture in Chinese history, as the newly established Ming regime sought to eliminate the last vestiges of Mongol rule while the Northern Yuan fought desperately to preserve their nomadic empire.

The strategic situation in 1371 presented a complex military picture. Ming forces had achieved significant victories across multiple fronts, pacifying regions north and south of the Yellow River including Shandong, Henan, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi-Gansu. Two of the Ming’s most capable generals – Li Wenzhong and Xu Da – were positioned strategically, with Li returning to the capital while Xu remained in Beiping to monitor exiled Yuan loyalists beyond the Great Wall.

The Collapse of Yuan Loyalists and Ming Consolidation

The Northern Yuan’s military defeats triggered internal instability, leading to a steady stream of defections. Prominent Yuan officials and nobles surrendered to the Ming, including:

– Counselor Tuohuochi from Manghutan (modern Hetao region)
– Imperial clansman Zhamuchi from Guanshan (northwest of modern Jining, Inner Mongolia)
– Privy Council official Dulian Tiemuer and Chancellor Kui Dijin from Dongsheng

In response, the Ming established military garrisons along the northern border, including the Manghu Civil-Military Thousand Household Office, Guanshan Thousand Household Office, and Shibaochi Thousand Household Office to administer these surrendered populations.

While the Ming had effectively neutralized resistance in northern China proper, Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang) made the strategic decision to shift focus southward before launching a decisive campaign into the Mongolian steppes. This pause allowed for crucial consolidation of Ming control over recently conquered territories.

The Conquest of Sichuan and Strategic Rearmament

The Sichuan campaign of 1371 marked a critical step in securing the Ming’s western flank. Ruled by the Xia Kingdom under Ming Sheng, Sichuan represented the last significant independent regime that could challenge Ming authority. When Ming Sheng refused Zhu Yuanzhang’s request for passage to attack the Mongol Prince of Liang in Yunnan, it provided the perfect casus belli.

The Ming deployed a two-pronged invasion under generals including Tang He, Fu Youde, and Liao Yongzhong:

1. A naval force from the capital’s guards and Jing-Huai regions advanced through the Qutang Gorge toward Chongqing
2. Land forces from Henan and Shaanxi marched through Qinlong toward Chengdu

The grueling seven-month campaign overcame Sichuan’s formidable terrain, culminating in Ming Sheng’s surrender. With Sichuan secured, the Ming solidified control over the Shaanxi-Gansu region, allowing western forces to focus exclusively on the Northern Yuan threat.

The Northeastern Frontier: A Different Approach

Simultaneously, the Ming made significant progress in the northeast. As early as 1370, Zhu Yuanzhang had dispatched envoys to Liaoyang, where former Yuan official Liu Yi surrendered. The establishment of the Liaodong Guard Commandery under Liu Yi’s leadership marked the beginning of Ming administration in the region, though Liu’s subsequent assassination by Northern Yuan loyalists necessitated reorganization under Wu Li.

In 1371, Ming generals Ma Yun and Ye Wang led a naval expedition from Shandong’s Denglai, landing at Lushun and establishing the Dingliao Capital Guard Commandery (later reorganized as the Liaodong Regional Military Commission). Unlike in China proper, the Ming implemented a purely military administration in Liaodong, establishing guards and battalions rather than civilian prefectures – a system well-suited to counter Mongol nomadic forces.

The 1372 Northern Expedition: A Three-Pronged Assault

After a year of preparation, Zhu Yuanzhang deemed the time ripe for a decisive strike against the Northern Yuan. He articulated three primary objectives to his ministers:

1. Securing the imperial seal (symbol of legitimate rule)
2. Capturing the formidable general Wang Baobao
3. Determining the whereabouts of the Yuan crown prince Ayushiridara

In early 1372, the Ming launched an ambitious three-pronged offensive:

Eastern Route Army (Li Wenzhong)
– 50,000 cavalry
– Advanced through Juyong Pass toward Yingchang
– Later redirected toward the Mongolian heartland

Western Route Army (Feng Sheng)
– 50,000 cavalry
– Marched through Jinzhou (modern Yuzhong, Gansu) and Lanzhou toward Gansu

Central Route Army (Xu Da)
– 50,000 cavalry
– Took the most direct path from Yanmen Pass toward Karakorum (the Northern Yuan capital)

The relatively modest troop numbers (compared to earlier Ming campaigns) reflected both the Northern Yuan’s weakened state and the logistical challenges of steppe warfare. The Mongolian plateau’s harsh climate, limited agricultural output, and vast distances made large-scale expeditions prohibitively difficult to supply.

The Battle of Lingbei: A Turning Point

The Central Route Army’s campaign proved particularly dramatic. Xu Da initially sought to draw Wang Baobao into battle near the border, but the wily Mongol general refused to engage on Ming terms. Instead, Wang employed a strategy of gradual retreat, luring Xu Da’s forces nearly 1,000 kilometers into Mongolian territory.

At the banks of the Tula River, Wang Baobao finally unleashed his counterattack in May 1372. Having joined forces with his lieutenant He Zongzhe, Wang employed his elite heavy cavalry (“guaizi ma”) to devastating effect. The Ming suffered significant casualties (estimated at 10,000+), marking Wang Baobao’s first major victory over Xu Da and shattering the myth of Ming invincibility.

Contemporary sources remain vague about the battle’s details, but Zhu Yuanzhang’s later correspondence reveals key insights. He warned generals about Wang Baobao’s tactics of drawing cavalry away from infantry support before counterattacking with heavy cavalry. The “guaizi ma” (reminiscent of Jin Dynasty cataphracts) proved particularly effective in the open steppe.

Eastern Army’s Deep Strike: To the Gates of Karakorum

While Xu Da faced defeat in the center, Li Wenzhong’s Eastern Army achieved remarkable penetration into Mongol territory. After finding Yingchang abandoned, Li redirected his forces toward the Kerulen River – the site of Genghis Khan’s historic first capital (the “Great Ordo”).

Li’s forces marched through:
– Kouwen (modern Abag Banner)
– Halamanglai (modern Erlianhot)
– The Kerulen River valley
– The Tuul River
– Finally reaching the Orkhon River near Karakorum

At the Argun River, Li engaged Yuan forces under Manchai and Khalajang (key members of Ayushiridara’s court). In fierce fighting, Li’s horse was shot from under him, requiring hand-to-hand combat before a subordinate provided a remount. The Ming pushed onward to Khangai (called “Chenghai” in Chinese sources), where they faced a numerically superior Yuan force.

Displaying remarkable composure, Li feigned confidence by feasting troops and releasing captured horses – convincing the Yuan of an impending ambush. After three days of standoff, the Yuan withdrew, allowing Li’s army to retreat intact, though not without significant losses including several high-ranking officers.

Western Army’s Successes

In contrast to the mixed results elsewhere, Feng Sheng’s Western Army achieved unqualified success in the Hexi Corridor. Fu Youde’s 5,000-strong vanguard won repeated victories, capturing Xiliang and Yongchang before forcing the surrender of Yuan officials including:

– Grand Councilor Suona’erjia
– Chancellor Guanzhu
– Shangdu Lü at Ganzhou (Zhangye)
– The entire garrison at Ejina (near modern Ejin Banner)

The Western Army’s campaign culminated in the bloodless flight of Yuan Prince Dorji Bal from Biejia Mountain, with Ming forces capturing vast herds of livestock across Dunhuang and Guazhou.

Aftermath and Legacy

The 1372 campaigns yielded mixed results. While the Western Army secured the Hexi Corridor, the Central Army’s defeat at Lingbei and Eastern Army’s costly penetration marked the first significant Ming reversal against the Northern Yuan. Estimates of total Ming casualties vary widely, from 10,000 in official accounts to exaggerated claims of 400,000.

The Northern Yuan gained a critical respite, stabilizing their regime for nearly a decade. Wang Baobao’s refusal to surrender – despite Zhu Yuanzhang’s repeated overtures (including a royal marriage proposal) – earned him the emperor’s grudging respect as a “peerless hero.” This period cemented the geopolitical divide that would characterize East Asian history for centuries: a settled agricultural Ming China confronting a nomadic Mongol confederation on the steppe frontier.

The Ming’s military administration of border regions like Liaodong established precedents for later Qing frontier policies, while the Northern Yuan’s survival ensured the continuation of Mongol political traditions that would later influence the Manchu conquest of China. These campaigns thus represent not merely a military confrontation, but a pivotal moment in the long-term relationship between China’s settled civilization and the nomadic peoples of Inner Asia.