The Historical Context of Ming Intervention

When news reached the Ming court that over 100,000 Japanese troops had reinvaded Korea in 1597, the Chinese government swiftly reversed its earlier policy of negotiation. Key figures advocating peace, such as Minister of War Shi Xing and negotiator Shen Weijing, were arrested, signaling a return to military confrontation. The Ming appointed new commanders, including Yang Hao as overseer of Korean military affairs, Xing Jie as governor of the Ji-Liao region, and Ma Gui as supreme commander against the Japanese. This marked the Ming Dynasty’s second major intervention in Korea, following the earlier conflict (1592–1593) that had featured decisive battles like the Siege of Pyongyang and the clash at Byeokjegwan.

The renewed campaign began with two critical engagements: the defense of Namwon and the Battle of Jiksan. Unlike the previous war, where Ming forces often took the offensive, these battles would test their ability to withstand Japanese assaults.

The Siege of Namwon: A Desperate Stand

Namwon, a strategically vital city in Jeolla Province, had been fortified by Ming general Luo Shangzhi during the first intervention. Drawing from his experience defending coastal regions against Japanese pirates, Luo reinforced Namwon’s walls with “hanging curtains”—wet blankets or quilts suspended between battlements to block bullets and arrows.

By 1597, command fell to Yang Yuan, a northern cavalry officer inexperienced in siege defense. Despite his efforts to deepen moats and install cannons at the gates, neglect of the hanging curtains proved disastrous. When 50,000 Japanese troops under Ukita Hideie and Konishi Yukinaga surrounded Namwon, the defenders—just 3,000 Ming soldiers and local Korean forces—faced overwhelming odds.

The Japanese assault began with probing attacks by arquebusiers, whose superior range and accuracy inflicted heavy casualties. Without adequate curtain defenses, Ming troops struggled to return fire. Japanese engineers then erected elevated platforms to rain bullets downward, forcing defenders from the walls. A desperate counterattack failed, and Konishi offered Yang Yuan a chance to surrender. Yang defiantly refused, tearing up the missive and declaring, “I’ve fought since age 15 and never retreated!”

Yet no reinforcements arrived. On August 18, the Japanese piled brushwood to scale the walls, overwhelming the defenders. Yang Yuan, wounded twice, escaped with a handful of men but was later executed for the defeat. Namwon’s fall triggered a collapse across northern Jeolla, mirroring the Japanese rout after Pyongyang.

The Battle of Jiksan: Halting the Japanese Advance

With 120,000 troops converging on Hanseong (Seoul), Ming strategists debated whether to fortify the capital or strike preemptively. Yang Hao and Ma Gui chose the latter, dispatching 2,000 elite cavalry under Xie Sheng to ambush the Japanese vanguard near Jiksan.

The Ming forces initially mistook white-clad Japanese scouts for Koreans, but quick deployment of iron shields neutralized enemy arquebus fire. Cavalry charges inflicted losses, yet the Japanese, led by Kuroda Nagamasa, exploited smoke cover to breach Ming lines. A fierce melee ensued, with both sides fighting six grueling engagements in a single day.

The deadlock broke when Kuroda’s reinforcements arrived, but Ming resilience forced a Japanese withdrawal. Jiksan became a strategic turning point—unlike the Ming’s earlier defeat at Byeokjegwan, this battle halted Japan’s northern advance and restored equilibrium.

The Siege of Ulsan: Ambition and Catastrophe

By late 1597, Japanese forces had retreated to coastal strongholds, stretching from Ulsan to Suncheon. Ming commanders, eager to capitalize, planned a multi-pronged offensive. The assault on Ulsan, held by Katō Kiyomasa’s garrison, began promisingly: Ming troops under Mao Guokei stormed outer defenses, but Yang Hao’s decision to delay the final assault—to let ally Li Rumei claim glory—proved fatal.

Japanese defenders fortified an icy inner citadel, rendering Ming artillery ineffective. Kiyomasa, sneaking through blockade lines, orchestrated a desperate resistance. Starvation and thirst plagued the garrison, yet Ming forces failed to breach the walls. When 50,000 Japanese reinforcements arrived, a disorganized Ming retreat turned into a rout, with thousands perishing in the chaotic withdrawal.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The Ming’s second intervention underscored both the strengths and flaws of late-16th-century warfare. Victories at Jiksan demonstrated the effectiveness of combined arms—cavalry, shields, and artillery—while failures at Ulsan revealed the perils of poor coordination and logistical overreach.

These campaigns also reshaped East Asian geopolitics. Japan’s eventual withdrawal following Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s death in 1598 ended its continental ambitions, while the Ming’s costly efforts accelerated its fiscal decline. For Korea, the war left devastation but also forged a lasting alliance with China.

Today, the conflict is remembered for its dramatic sieges, tactical innovations, and the tragic human cost of imperial rivalries. Archaeological sites like Namwon’s battlements and Ulsan’s fortifications serve as poignant reminders of an era when East Asia’s fate hung in the balance.