Ancient China’s Earliest Glimpses of Japan

Long before Japan emerged as a unified nation, Chinese scholars recorded fascinating details about their island neighbors to the east. The earliest known reference appears in the Shan Hai Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), a Warring States period text that briefly mentions “Wa (Japan) belonging to Yan.” This suggests contact between Japan and the Yan state (based in modern Hebei province) before its conquest by Qin Shi Huang in 222 BCE, likely mediated through Korean intermediaries.

The historical record becomes clearer during the Han dynasty. The Han Shu (Book of Han) notes: “In the Lelang Sea there are Wa people, divided into more than one hundred countries, who come at set times to present tribute.” This 1st century BCE account reveals Japan’s fragmented political landscape before unification.

The Golden Seal and Official Relations

A pivotal moment in early Sino-Japanese relations occurred in 57 CE, when the Hou Han Shu (Book of Later Han) records: “The king of the Wa country of Na sent envoys who came and presented tribute.” Emperor Guangwu responded by granting an official gold seal. This historical account gained physical confirmation in 1784 when a farmer in Shikanoshima, Fukuoka, unearthed a golden seal inscribed “Han Wei Nu Guo Wang” (King of the Wa Country of Na, [Subject] of Han).

The 112-gram gold seal’s discovery near Fukuoka supports theories that “Nu” referred to the ancient name for that region. While some scholars debate whether this represented a local chieftain or broader Japanese authority, the artifact undeniably proves formal diplomatic exchanges by the 1st century CE.

The Tumultuous 2nd Century and Queen Himiko’s Rise

By 107 CE, Japanese envoys again appeared in Chinese records, presenting 160 “shengkou” (likely slaves or captives) to Emperor An of Han. The Hou Han Shu describes growing instability in Japan during this period: “The Wa country became disordered with warfare between its various parts.” This chaos reportedly led to the remarkable solution of elevating a woman as ruler.

The Wei Zhi (Records of Wei) provides our most detailed account: “The country formerly had a man as king… Afterward there was great disorder with incessant warfare. Then they agreed to raise up a woman as their ruler. Her name was Himiko.” This shaman-queen, said to practice “the way of ghosts” and maintain celibacy while ruling with her brother’s assistance, would become one of ancient Japan’s most enigmatic figures.

The Three Kingdoms Context and Japan’s Strategic Value

The early 3rd century saw China divided between Wei, Shu, and Wu. The northeastern Gongsun clan controlled Liaodong and northern Korea until 238 CE, when Wei forces under Sima Yi crushed their rebellion. This regional power shift directly impacted Japan’s diplomatic calculations.

In 239 CE, Queen Himiko’s envoys arrived at the Wei court seeking recognition. The Wei Zhi records Emperor Cao Rui’s response: “We confer upon you the title ‘Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei’… with the gold seal with purple ribbon.” This exchange reveals Japan’s strategic awareness of Chinese politics and desire for legitimization through the prestigious tributary system.

The Enduring Mystery of Yamatai’s Location

The Wei Zhi provides detailed but puzzling geographical information about Himiko’s kingdom Yamatai. The text describes a journey from Korea’s Daifang commandery through various Japanese territories, with two main interpretations emerging:

1. Northern Kyushu Theory: Places Yamatai in modern Fukuoka’s Yamato region, supported by phonetic similarities and archaeological finds. However, this struggles to reconcile with the text’s stated travel times.

2. Kinai Theory: Argues Yamatai was in the Nara basin, Japan’s later political center. This better fits the 30-day sea voyage description but requires explaining directional inconsistencies in the text.

Modern scholars continue debating these theories, with some proposing hybrid interpretations or questioning whether the records reflect actual itineraries or compiled geographical knowledge.

Cultural Insights from the Wei Zhi

Beyond politics, the Wei Zhi offers invaluable ethnographic details about 3rd century Japan:

– Tattooing customs: “Men young and old all tattoo their faces and decorate their bodies”
– Divination practices: “They take bones and divine by burning them to foretell good and bad fortune”
– Social norms: “At gatherings, there is no distinction between father and son or between men and women… The people are fond of liquor”
– Gender relations: “Important men have four or five wives… Women are not loose or jealous”

These observations, while filtered through Chinese cultural perspectives, provide rare contemporary glimpses of proto-historic Japanese society.

The Legacy of Himiko and Early Contacts

Queen Himiko’s reign marked a transitional period in Japanese history as scattered chiefdoms began consolidating into larger polities. Her diplomatic engagement with Wei China set precedents for Japan’s later tributary relations while asserting autonomous authority.

The Wei Zhi remains indispensable for understanding Japan’s emergence from prehistory. Its detailed account, while sometimes ambiguous, provides the first substantial written record of Japanese society, politics, and geography. Modern archaeology continues uncovering evidence that alternately supports and challenges this ancient text, ensuring Queen Himiko and her mysterious kingdom Yamatai remain subjects of lively historical inquiry.

The early Sino-Japanese interactions recorded in these texts established patterns of cultural exchange that would continue for centuries, with Japan selectively adapting Chinese innovations while maintaining distinct traditions. From golden seals to shaman queens, these ancient contacts laid foundations for one of East Asia’s most consequential cross-cultural relationships.