The early 20th century was a tumultuous period for China, marked by the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the birth of the Republic, and the struggle to establish a modern nation-state. Among the key episodes in this era was the National Protection War , a critical military and political campaign launched to oppose Yuan Shikai’s attempt to restore monarchy and proclaim himself emperor. This article delves into the background, military campaigns, and enduring significance of the National Protection War, with a special focus on the military operations led by the Yunnan-based National Protection Army and their pivotal role in shaping China’s republican future.
Historical Context: The Rise and Fall of Yuan Shikai’s Monarchy
After the 1911 Revolution toppled the Qing Dynasty, China entered a fragile republican era. Yuan Shikai, a powerful military leader and politician, maneuvered himself into the presidency of the newly formed Republic of China. However, in late 1915, Yuan shocked the nation by declaring himself emperor, attempting to revive the monarchy under the short-lived Hongxian Empire. This move outraged many provinces and political factions, especially the emerging Chinese bourgeoisie and republican intellectuals who had fought for a democratic republic.
The so-called “Second Revolution,” an earlier anti-Yuan military campaign, had already failed to unseat him. Nonetheless, the opposition intensified, culminating in the National Protection Movement—a widespread, province-led resistance to Yuan’s imperial ambitions aimed at safeguarding the republican system.
Origins and Goals of the National Protection Movement
The National Protection Movement was spearheaded by provincial leaders and military commanders in southern and southwestern China, particularly in Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan, and Guangxi provinces. These regions, geographically distant from Beijing and with strong local military forces, became the bastions of armed resistance against Yuan.
The core objective was clear: to overthrow Yuan Shikai’s imperial regime and restore the Republic. The movement combined political declarations of independence from Yuan’s government with organized military campaigns to wrest control of strategic territories, especially in Sichuan and along the Yunnan-Guizhou border.
Military Strategy and Deployment in Sichuan: The Main Battlefield
Sichuan Province, known historically as the “Land of Abundance,” was not only a vital agricultural hub but also a strategic military prize. Its rugged terrain and vast population made it a traditional battleground for competing armies.
In February 1915, Yuan Shikai attempted to consolidate control over Sichuan by appointing Chen Huan, his trusted deputy and army staff officer, to oversee military affairs there. Chen deployed three mixed brigades from the central government’s Beiyang Army—the Fourth, Thirteenth, and Sixteenth—into Sichuan, supplementing local Sichuanese forces and loyal provincial guards. Altogether, Yuan’s forces in Sichuan numbered around 40,000 troops, stationed in key locations such as Chongqing, Luzhou, Chengdu, and Shunqing.
However, the National Protection Army, led by Yunnan warlord Cai E, conducted a detailed analysis of the enemy’s disposition. Cai noted that some commanders, like the Fourth Brigade’s Wu Xiangzhen—a native of Yunnan—and Liu Cunhou of the Second Sichuan Division at Yongning, were sympathetic or even secretly allied with the National Protection cause. Only a few units, such as the First Division under Zhou Jun and the Sixteenth Brigade under Feng Yuxiang, were genuinely loyal to Yuan. This insight shaped Cai’s plan to strike decisively before Yuan’s reinforcements could arrive.
The Three-Pronged Offensive: Yunnan’s Bold Military Campaign
Cai E devised a three-pronged military assault into Sichuan, concentrating forces to capture crucial strategic points. The National Protection Army’s First Army was divided into:
– Left Wing: Under Liu Yunfeng and sub-commanders Deng Taizhong and Yang Geng, advancing from Zhaotong to capture Xuzhou and then pushing toward Chengdu.
– Center: Led by Cai E himself, with Zhao Youxin and Gu Pinzhen commanding the second and third brigades, moving from Xuyong to seize Luzhou and then advancing down the Yangtze River toward Chongqing.
– Right Wing: Commanded by Dai Kan, this force consisted of Yunnan and Guizhou troops advancing from Songkan to attack Qijiang and threaten Chongqing from the south.
Cai’s initial plan emphasized secrecy and rapid movement to surprise Yuan’s troops and seize key positions before Beijing’s reinforcements could intervene. Unfortunately, premature public declarations of war and slow troop mobilization undermined this strategic advantage.
The Battle of Xuzhou : A Decisive Victory
The left wing of the National Protection Army moved earliest. Deng Taizhong’s First Regiment departed Kunming on December 16, 1915, followed by Yang Geng’s Seventh Regiment five days later. By mid-January 1916, these forces reached the border town of Xinchang , where they clashed with Wu Xiangzhen’s Fourth Mixed Brigade of the Beiyang Army.
Despite Wu’s efforts to fortify defensive positions, he failed to secure key mountain passes and river crossings. The National Protection Army quickly routed Yuan’s forces in a series of engagements, capturing important locations such as Yanzipo, Huangpo’er, and Pengyin Village. On January 18, they took the strategic town of Hengjiang, and the following day launched a two-pronged attack on Anbian Town. Using maneuvers that forced the enemy to split their attention, the National Protection Army pressed on, capturing Baixi Town and closing in on Xuzhou.
Faced with overwhelming opposition and lacking effective reinforcements, Wu Xiangzhen abandoned Xuzhou on January 21, retreating toward Ziliujing . This victory was more than a tactical success; it opened a critical passage from Yunnan into Sichuan, undermining Yuan’s control in the region.
Lessons and Implications from the Sichuan Campaign
The loss of Xuzhou was a severe blow to Yuan Shikai’s imperial ambitions. Strategically, it demonstrated the effectiveness of coordinated provincial resistance and underscored the vulnerabilities in Yuan’s forces, many of whom were unwilling or unable to fight decisively for his monarchy.
However, the campaign also revealed challenges for the National Protection Army. The dispersion of forces into three separate columns diluted their combat power, and delays in troop movements allowed Yuan’s reinforcements to arrive ahead of schedule. Furthermore, premature political declarations compromised the element of surprise, a key factor in the initial plan.
These lessons informed subsequent military operations in the regions bordering Sichuan, including the complex battles in western Hunan and along the Yunnan-Guangxi border.
Broader Significance of the National Protection War
The National Protection War was a turning point in early republican China. It decisively ended Yuan Shikai’s imperial experiment and reaffirmed the commitment of many provinces to a republican form of government. The conflict highlighted the regional nature of Chinese politics at the time, where provincial militaries wielded significant autonomy and could challenge central authority.
Moreover, the war demonstrated the rising influence of the Chinese bourgeoisie and intellectual elites, who supported republican ideals and mobilized popular support against autocracy. It also underscored the importance of military leadership and strategic coordination in shaping China’s political destiny.
Legacy: The Struggle for Republicanism and China’s Fragile Unity
Although the National Protection War succeeded in defeating Yuan’s monarchy, it did not bring immediate peace or national unity. The Republic remained fragmented, with warlords controlling various regions and central authority weak. Nonetheless, the war set a precedent for provincial resistance to autocratic rule and reinforced the principle of republican governance as a legitimate political goal.
The conflict also elevated figures like Cai E and Feng Yuxiang, who would continue to play significant roles in China’s military and political arenas during the subsequent Warlord Era.
In the broader sweep of Chinese history, the National Protection War stands as a testament to the determined efforts of provincial forces to defend republican ideals against reactionary monarchy. It illustrates the complexities and challenges that China faced in its transition from imperial rule to a modern nation-state.
Conclusion
The National Protection War was more than a military campaign; it was a defining moment in China’s early republican era. Through coordinated provincial resistance, strategic military operations, and political determination, the movement crushed Yuan Shikai’s imperial ambitions and upheld the fragile Republic. The battles fought in Sichuan and neighboring provinces reflected the deep currents of change sweeping China in the early 20th century—a nation struggling to redefine itself amid competing visions of governance and identity.
Understanding this crucial chapter provides valuable insight into the roots of modern China’s political development and the enduring struggle to balance unity, democracy, and regional autonomy in a vast and diverse land.