The Stage Is Set: England Before the Invasion

The year 1066 stands as one of the most consequential dates in English history, marking the dramatic transition from Anglo-Saxon to Norman rule. England in the mid-11th century was a wealthy kingdom that had recently been unified under a single monarch after centuries of Viking invasions and internal conflicts. King Edward the Confessor, who died childless in January 1066, had spent much of his youth in Normandy, creating political ties that would prove fateful for England’s future.

Several claimants emerged for the English throne upon Edward’s death. The most prominent were Harold Godwinson, the powerful Earl of Wessex who was crowned king shortly after Edward’s death, and William, Duke of Normandy, who claimed Edward had promised him the throne. Across the North Sea, King Harald Hardrada of Norway also pressed his claim, supported by Harold Godwinson’s own brother Tostig. This complex web of claims and counterclaims set the stage for the dramatic events that would unfold in the autumn of 1066.

William’s Ambitious Invasion Fleet

Duke William of Normandy assembled an impressive invasion force unlike anything seen in Western Europe for centuries. Historical accounts suggest his fleet numbered between 700 and 1,000 ships – an enormous logistical undertaking for the time. William’s personal command ship measured 55 feet long and featured a masthead carved in the image of Normandy’s heraldic leopard, a gift from his wife Matilda.

The Norman forces represented a cosmopolitan medieval army, including not just Normans but also mercenaries and adventurers from Flanders, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Brittany, and France. The voyage across the English Channel proved challenging, with two ships lost during the crossing – including one carrying a so-called prophet who had been accompanying the army. When informed of this loss, William reportedly remarked with characteristic dry wit: “He couldn’t even foresee his own death – not much of a prophet then.”

Harold’s Fateful Decisions

While William prepared his invasion, King Harold faced his own challenges. Shortly after his coronation, he had to march north to repel an invasion by Harald Hardrada of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Though victorious, this campaign depleted Harold’s forces and left them exhausted when news arrived of William’s landing in southern England.

Harold’s advisors, including his brother Gyrth, urged caution. They suggested Harold remain in London while others engaged William first, preserving the king’s ability to continue resistance even if initial battles were lost. Harold’s mother reportedly tried to physically restrain him from facing William directly, only to be “rudely kicked aside” by her determined son. Whether motivated by pride, duty, or strategic calculation, Harold insisted on leading his army personally to confront the Norman threat.

The Normans deliberately ravaged the Sussex countryside, knowing Harold had family ties to the region. This psychological warfare worked exactly as intended – the destruction of his ancestral lands proved too much for Harold to tolerate passively. Had he waited longer to gather reinforcements from across England, the course of history might have been very different.

The Battle of Hastings: A Day That Changed England

On October 13, 1066, the exhausted English army took up defensive positions on Senlac Hill near Hastings. Contemporary accounts paint contrasting pictures of the night before battle. Norman chroniclers describe the English drinking heavily and carousing through the night, while portraying their own forces as engaged in solemn prayer and religious preparation. While likely exaggerated for propaganda purposes, these accounts reflect the cultural stereotypes each side held about the other.

The battle commenced at 9:00 AM on October 14. Approximately 7,000-8,000 English soldiers formed a formidable shield wall along the ridge, with Harold’s personal banner and the Wessex wyvern flag marking the king’s position. The English forces consisted entirely of infantry, including 3,000 heavily armed housecarls wielding massive two-handed axes capable of cleaving a horse in two. William’s army was similarly sized but included 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 archers – tactical advantages that would prove decisive.

The fighting lasted an unusually long time for medieval warfare – an entire day rather than the typical hour or two. William reportedly had three horses killed beneath him as he led from the front. At one critical moment, a rumor spread that William had fallen, potentially triggering a Norman rout. The duke dramatically removed his helmet to show his face and rally his troops, shouting that any who fled would surely die.

The turning point came when part of the Norman line feigned retreat, drawing some English troops down the hill in pursuit and breaking their defensive formation. Harold’s brothers Gyrth and Leofwine fell in the fighting. Finally, William sent four knights to kill Harold himself. Contemporary accounts vary about the exact manner of Harold’s death – the famous story of him being struck in the eye with an arrow appears to be a later addition, possibly Norman propaganda referencing biblical punishments for oath-breakers.

Aftermath and Consolidation of Power

The battle proved devastating for the English aristocracy. Approximately 4,000 English soldiers died, including most of the kingdom’s leading nobles. Norman losses numbered around 2,500. William showed little respect for his fallen rival – Harold’s body was reportedly so mutilated that his mistress Edith Swan-neck had to identify him by intimate markings. Despite offers from Harold’s mother of gold equal to his body’s weight, William refused to release the remains for proper burial. The last Anglo-Saxon king’s final resting place remains unknown to this day.

William moved swiftly to consolidate his victory. He built Battle Abbey on the site of his triumph, with the high altar supposedly marking the spot where Harold fell. The church was dedicated to St. Martin, patron saint of soldiers and reformed drunkards – a pointed reference to Norman accounts of English behavior before the battle.

Despite his victory at Hastings, William’s conquest wasn’t yet complete. Young Edgar Atheling, just 13 years old, was proclaimed king in London. William methodically advanced on the capital, using a combination of military force and psychological warfare. After securing Dover and suffering a near-fatal bout of dysentery at Canterbury, William finally received the submission of English leaders at Wallingford. On Christmas Day 1066, he was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey in a ceremony that nearly turned disastrous when his nervous troops misinterpreted crowd noise as rebellion and began attacking bystanders.

The Bayeux Tapestry: A Medieval Masterpiece

Our most vivid source for these events is the remarkable Bayeux Tapestry. This 230-foot-long embroidered narrative, created shortly after the conquest, depicts events from 1064 through the Battle of Hastings. Though often described as pro-Norman propaganda, the tapestry presents a surprisingly nuanced account, showing Norman atrocities alongside their triumphs.

The tapestry’s origins remain debated. Possible patrons include Bishop Odo of Bayeux (William’s half-brother), Count Eustace of Boulogne, or even Harold’s sister Edith, widow of Edward the Confessor. Its survival is miraculous – during the French Revolution it was nearly cut up for military purposes or used as confetti before being saved by a quick-thinking official. Napoleon later displayed it in Paris as inspiration for his own planned invasion of England.

The tapestry’s final panels are missing, leaving unanswered questions about Harold’s death and the immediate aftermath of the battle. Over the centuries, souvenir hunters have removed sections, while Victorian enthusiasts created a near-perfect replica now displayed in Reading, England.

The Lasting Impact of the Norman Conquest

William’s victory at Hastings reshaped England forever. The Norman Conquest brought:
– A new French-speaking aristocracy that displaced the Anglo-Saxon elite
– The introduction of feudalism as a governing system
– A building boom of castles and cathedrals in the Romanesque style
– The merging of Anglo-Saxon and Norman legal traditions
– The eventual development of Middle English as the languages merged
– Closer ties between England and continental Europe

The Domesday Book, William’s great survey of his new kingdom completed in 1086, provides stark evidence of the conquest’s thoroughness – by this time, only two major Anglo-Saxon landowners remained. The Norman impact on English language, architecture, law, and governance remains visible nearly a millennium later, making 1066 perhaps the most consequential year in England’s long history.