The Rise of Warlordism and the Northern Expedition’s Origins

In the turbulent years following the collapse of imperial China, regional warlords carved out personal fiefdoms, plunging the nation into fragmentation. Among them, Wu Peifu of the Zhili Clique and Sun Chuanfang, the self-styled “Allied Commander of Five Provinces,” dominated central and eastern China. By 1926, the Nationalist government in Guangzhou, led by the Kuomintang (KMT) and supported by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), launched the Northern Expedition—a military campaign to unify China by crushing these warlords.

The expedition’s first major target was Wu Peifu, whose power base spanned Hunan, Hubei, and parts of Henan and Hebei. Commanding over 200,000 troops, Wu’s forces were a patchwork of regional armies, including Xiang (Hunan), Gui (Guangxi), and Yue (Guangdong) divisions. However, internal dissent and popular discontent weakened his hold. In Hunan, local governor Zhao Hengti’s oppressive rule sparked revolts, leading his subordinate Tang Shengzhi to defect to the Nationalists. This betrayal triggered a chain of events that drew Wu into open conflict with the Northern Expeditionary forces.

The Hunan-Hubei Campaign: Wu Peifu’s Downfall

The battle for Hunan began in March 1926 when Tang Shengzhi, now allied with the KMT, seized Changsha and declared himself acting governor. Wu Peifu retaliated by appointing Zhao’s loyalist Ye Kaixin to lead a counteroffensive, marshaling 100,000 troops in a three-pronged assault. Despite early gains, Wu underestimated the Nationalists’ resolve.

The decisive turning point came with the arrival of the Communist-led “Iron Army,” the Ye Ting Independent Regiment. In June 1926, Ye Ting’s forces routed Wu’s armies at battles in Youxian and Liling, securing Hunan’s southern flank. By July, the Nationalists captured Changsha, forcing Wu’s troops into a desperate retreat across the Miluo River.

Wu’s final stand came at the strategic bridges of Tingsiqiao and Heshengqiao, gateways to Wuhan. Despite deploying elite units and personally executing deserters, Wu’s defenses crumbled under the Nationalists’ relentless assaults. By September 1926, Wuhan fell, marking the end of Wu’s dominance. His once-mighty army disintegrated, and he fled north, a broken warlord.

Sun Chuanfang’s Ambitions and the Jiangxi-Fujian Theater

With Wu defeated, the Nationalists turned to Sun Chuanfang, whose “Five Provinces Alliance” (Jiangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui) posed a greater threat. Sun, confident in his 200,000-strong army, initially adopted a neutral stance, hoping to exploit the conflict. However, the Nationalists preempted his plans by launching simultaneous strikes into Jiangxi and Fujian.

In Jiangxi, the Nationalists outmaneuvered Sun’s forces, culminating in the November 1926 Battle of Nanchang. Despite early setbacks, the Nationalists encircled and annihilated Sun’s troops along the Nanchang-Jiujiang Railway, capturing 15,000 prisoners. Sun’s navy defected, and by December, his Jiangxi forces were obliterated.

Fujian fell just as swiftly. Zhou Yinren, Sun’s Fujian commander, faced rebellions within his ranks. Nationalist general He Yingqin capitalized on this, seizing key cities like Fuzhou with minimal resistance. By early 1927, Sun’s southeastern stronghold had collapsed.

The Fall of the Lower Yangtze and Sun’s Last Stand

The final phase targeted Sun’s heartland: Zhejiang, Anhui, and Jiangsu. Defections crippled his army—Zhejiang’s Xia Chao and later Chen Yi defected, while Anhui’s warlords surrendered en masse. In March 1927, Nationalist forces, aided by Communist-led worker uprisings, seized Shanghai and Nanjing. Sun’s alliance with Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian Clique failed to save him. By April, his regime was extinct.

Legacy: The Northern Expedition’s Impact on Modern China

The campaigns against Wu and Sun reshaped China’s political landscape. The Nationalists emerged as the dominant force, though their alliance with the CCP soon fractured. Militarily, the expedition demonstrated the power of ideological motivation over warlord mercenaries. The Ye Ting Independent Regiment’s successes foreshadowed the CCP’s future military prowess.

For Wu and Sun, the Northern Expedition was their undoing. Wu faded into obscurity, while Sun’s failed gambit marked the end of regional warlordism as a viable political model. The expedition’s blend of conventional warfare, defections, and popular uprisings became a blueprint for revolutionary warfare in China.

Today, the Northern Expedition is remembered as the crucible that forged modern China’s centralized state—a turbulent yet transformative chapter in the nation’s journey toward unity.