Introduction to a Foundational Text

Among the most significant philosophical works from classical antiquity is a systematic treatise exploring the origins, content, and function of ritual propriety. This text, widely recognized as a cornerstone of ethical and social philosophy, was so influential that it was excerpted in both the Elder Dai’s and Younger Dai’s compilations of ritual texts. Its author grounded the theory of ritual in a provocative view of human nature, arguing that people are born with desires which, if left unregulated, lead to conflict and social disintegration. Ritual, in this framework, emerges as an essential mechanism for harmonizing individual wants with collective stability, balancing human appetites with social structure.

Historical Context and Intellectual Foundations

To appreciate the depth of this philosophical contribution, one must understand the era in which it was conceived. The text was composed during the Warring States period, a time of intense political fragmentation, social upheaval, and intellectual fervor in ancient China. Philosophers of this age grappled with questions of how to achieve order, justice, and human flourishing amid widespread instability. It was against this backdrop that the author developed his distinctive vision, which stood in contrast to more optimistic views of human nature promoted by some contemporaries.

Central to the author’s system is the belief that human beings are born with innate desires. Left unchecked, these desires inevitably lead individuals to seek fulfillment without regard for others, resulting in competition, strife, and ultimately social chaos. This perspective directly challenges the idea that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness, instead proposing that moral and social order must be consciously constructed through cultural institutions—foremost among them, ritual.

The Dual Aims of Ritual: Nourishment and Distinction

The text presents ritual as serving two complementary functions: nourishment and distinction. Nourishment refers to the satisfaction of human material and sensory desires. The author provides vivid examples: fine foods and flavors nurture the mouth; fragrant herbs and flowers please the nose; intricately decorated artifacts and garments delight the eye; music from bells, drums, zithers, and pipes gratifies the ear; and spacious rooms with comfortable mats and furniture care for the body. In this sense, ritual is not a rejection of desire but a means of fulfilling it in a sustainable and harmonious manner.

At the same time, ritual establishes social distinctions—hierarchies of noble and commoner, differences between old and young, and gradations of wealth and status. These are not arbitrary divisions but carefully calibrated roles that ensure each individual’s position is appropriate and recognized. The text illustrates this with the example of the emperor’s chariot: its fine mats care for the body, its fragrant herbs please the nose, its decorated fittings please the eye, and its harmonious bells please the ear. But these are not merely indulgences; they are visible expressions of the emperor’s exalted status, reinforcing social order and embodying the principle of distinction.

Ritual as Social Harmony and Moral Cultivation

A key insight of the text is that ritual allows for the simultaneous fulfillment of individual desires and the maintenance of social cohesion. By providing structured outlets for human appetites, ritual prevents the destructive competition that would arise if people sought to satisfy their wants without constraint. The author argues that past sage kings, dismayed by the chaos resulting from unbridled desire, instituted rituals to allocate resources and roles, ensuring that desires did not outstrip available goods and that goods were not exhausted by insatiable desires. In this way, ritual enables both human wants and material resources to be sustained and to grow in tandem.

Moreover, the text emphasizes that ritual is not merely external conformity but a means of cultivating inner character. Through practices such as respectful deference, modest speech, and formalized conduct, individuals develop virtues that contribute to personal and collective well-being. The author contrasts this with the pursuit of immediate gratification or shortsighted self-interest, warning that those who focus only on life itself may end up losing it; those fixated on profit may invite harm; those who seek ease through laziness may court danger; and those who indulge emotions without restraint may face ruin. By orienting oneself toward ritual and righteousness, one achieves both personal fulfillment and social harmony.

Comparative Perspectives: Confucian and Mohist Views

The text positions its theory of ritual in explicit opposition to other philosophical schools, particularly Mohism. While Mohists advocated universal love and utilitarian frugality, often criticizing elaborate rituals as wasteful, the author defends ritual as essential to human flourishing. The Confucian approach, as presented here, enables people to “have both”—satisfying desires within a structured moral framework—whereas Mohism, in seeking to suppress desire and abolish distinctions, ultimately causes people to “lose both.” This contrast underscores the author’s belief that ritual is not a luxury but a necessity for a functional and ethical society.

Enduring Legacy and Modern Relevance

The ideas articulated in this text have had a profound and lasting influence. They became integral to Confucian thought, shaping East Asian understandings of ethics, education, and governance for centuries. The emphasis on ritual as a tool for moral cultivation and social harmony resonated deeply in cultures that valued hierarchical yet reciprocal relationships, and its insights continue to be studied in fields ranging from philosophy and ethics to sociology and political theory.

In the modern world, the text’s exploration of desire, social order, and ethical formation remains strikingly relevant. It invites reflection on how societies balance individual freedom with collective responsibility, how institutions can channel human appetites constructively, and how cultural practices contribute to moral development. While the specific rituals described may belong to a particular historical context, the underlying principles—that human desires require thoughtful regulation, that social roles provide structure and meaning, and that ethical life involves both nourishment and distinction—offer enduring wisdom for anyone interested in the foundations of a good society.

Conclusion: Ritual as the Pinnacle of Human Culture

In the end, the text presents ritual as nothing less than the highest expression of human culture—the “ultimate standard of humanity.” It asserts that those who follow ritual achieve order, safety, and preservation, while those who reject it risk chaos, danger, and dissolution. This bold claim underscores the author’s conviction that ritual is not a peripheral aspect of life but central to what makes us human and what enables us to live well together. Through its nuanced analysis of desire, its defense of social structure, and its vision of ethical cultivation, this classical work continues to challenge and inspire readers to reflect on the foundations of a harmonious and flourishing society.