The Road to War: Rising Tensions in East Asia

The late 19th century witnessed a dramatic shift in East Asian power dynamics as a rapidly modernizing Japan challenged China’s traditional dominance over the Korean Peninsula. The spark that ignited the First Sino-Japanese War came on August 1, 1894 (Meiji 27), when Emperor Meiji issued a formal declaration of war against China. The proclamation, published in Japan’s official gazette the following day, framed the conflict as a necessary measure to protect Korea’s stability and maintain regional peace.

Japan’s casus belli centered on allegations that China had violated the 1882 Treaty of Chemulpo by deploying troops to Korea and attacking Japanese ships in Korean waters. The Meiji government positioned itself as the defender of international law and East Asian order, while portraying China as the aggressor. Emperor Meiji’s declaration concluded with a call to arms, urging his “loyal and brave subjects” to restore peace and uphold Japan’s imperial glory.

China’s response came the same day, though dated July 1, 1894 (Guangxu 20) by the lunar calendar. The Qing court’s edict emphasized China’s centuries-old suzerainty over Korea, dating back to 1637 when Korea became a tributary state. The document accused Japan of acting without justification, ignoring international mediation efforts, and launching surprise naval attacks—specifically referencing the Battle of Pungdo near Asan Bay where Japanese warships ambushed Chinese transports.

Military Miscalculations and the Myth of Victory

As diplomatic relations ruptured, both nations mobilized their forces, but the Qing military leadership proved disastrously unprepared. The early stages of the war saw one of history’s most consequential military deceptions—General Ye Zhichao’s false report of a great victory at the Battle of Seonghwan. The Qing court, celebrating this imaginary triumph where Ye claimed to have killed 2,000 Japanese troops, rewarded his forces with 20,000 taels of silver before the truth emerged.

Ye Zhichao, a protege of influential statesman Li Hongzhang, exemplified the systemic flaws plaguing China’s military. As the Zhili Provincial Commander stationed at Shanhaiguan, Ye had earned Li’s trust through past campaigns against the Nian Rebellion. However, his arrogance and insubordination during the Korean crisis revealed fatal weaknesses. When ordered to relocate his troops from Asan to Pyongyang by sea to consolidate forces, Ye refused, insisting on remaining to ambush advancing Japanese troops.

After suffering devastating losses at Seonghwan, Ye’s battered forces embarked on a grueling month-long retreat northward through Korea’s mountainous terrain. Marching through Chungju, Jincheon, and across the Han and Taedong Rivers, his troops succumbed to disease and starvation while Ye continued fabricating reports of success. This deception delayed Qing recognition of their deteriorating position until intelligence from foreign diplomats and escaped officials like Tang Shaoyi revealed the truth.

Naval Disasters and the Collapse of Prestige

The war exposed catastrophic failures in China’s much-vaunted Beiyang Fleet. Once considered Asia’s most powerful navy, its reputation crumbled amid humiliating defeats and command scandals. Public ridicule targeted officers like Fang Boqian of the cruiser Jiyuan, accused of hiding below decks during combat and ordering his ship to flee under a white flag. Lin Taizeng, another senior commander, faced scorn for retreating from battle.

Admiral Ding Ruchang, the Beiyang Fleet’s commander, struggled with systemic issues beyond his control. Naval funds had been diverted to reconstruct the Summer Palace for Empress Dowager Cixi’s 60th birthday celebrations, leaving the fleet underfunded. Additionally, regional factionalism plagued operations—most senior officers were Fujian natives trained at the Fuzhou Naval Academy, creating tensions with Ding, an Anhui protégé of Li Hongzhang.

The Scourge of Corruption: How Institutional Rot Doomed the Qing

The Qing military’s collapse stemmed from deep institutional corruption. Nowhere was this more evident than in the conduct of General Wei Rui-gui’s 13-battalion Sheng Army, which became notorious for looting Korean villages and terrorizing civilians. Investigations later revealed Wei had embezzled military funds to capitalize his private pawnshops—a practice that trickled down to his troops, who routinely plundered to compensate for withheld wages.

When Ye Zhichao’s demoralized forces straggled into Pyongyang, they infected the garrison with their lawlessness. The combined Qing forces—numbering 35 battalions from various regional armies—spent more time feasting and quarreling than preparing defenses. Contemporary records describe commanders “holding drinking parties” while Japanese forces advanced, underscoring the Qing military’s catastrophic decay.

The War’s Lasting Impact on East Asia

The First Sino-Japanese War marked a watershed in regional history. Japan’s victory shattered China’s regional dominance, leading to the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) which recognized Korean independence (effectively placing it under Japanese influence) and ceded Taiwan to Japan. The conflict exposed the Qing Dynasty’s fatal weaknesses, accelerating revolutionary movements that would eventually overthrow imperial rule.

For Japan, the triumph validated its Meiji modernization program and launched its emergence as an imperial power. The war’s legacy continues to shape East Asian geopolitics, with contemporary tensions over regional leadership tracing their roots to this pivotal 19th-century clash. The conflict’s lessons about military preparedness, institutional integrity, and the perils of misinformation remain strikingly relevant in modern international relations.