The Collapse of Zhang Xianzhong’s Rebellion and the Rise of New Leaders

The Daxi Army’s conquest of Yunnan in 1647 marked a pivotal turning point in the resistance against the Qing dynasty during the Southern Ming period. While Zhang Xianzhong, the original leader of the peasant rebellion, had established a short-lived regime in Sichuan, his brutal policies and failure to consolidate power led to widespread revolts. By the time of his death in 1646, the Daxi forces were reduced to a beleaguered remnant concentrated near Xichong.

In contrast to the complete disintegration of Li Zicheng’s rival Shun Army after 1645, the Daxi remnants under Sun Kewang, Li Dingguo, Liu Wenxiu, and Ai Nengqi demonstrated remarkable cohesion. These four generals, recognizing the strategic importance of Yunnan, launched a swift campaign to secure this resource-rich frontier province. Their success in establishing a stable base would prove decisive in prolonging Southern Ming resistance for over a decade.

Establishing a Functional Rebel Government

Upon securing Yunnan, the Daxi leaders implemented sweeping reforms that transformed the province into an anti-Qing stronghold:

### Political Restructuring
Sun Kewang and his colleagues abolished the Daxi kingdom’s title to court Ming loyalists, adopting the slogan “Support the Ming heir and restore our rivers and mountains.” They established a collective leadership:
– Sun Kewang as Pingdong Wang (Eastern Pacification Prince)
– Li Dingguo as Anxi Wang (Western Peace Prince)
– Liu Wenxiu as Funan Wang (Southern Comfort Prince)
– Ai Nengqi as Dingbei Wang (Northern Stabilization Prince)

The administration retained Ming official Mu Tianbo as Duke of Qian to maintain continuity while appointing new officials across prefectures. Notably, they:
– Instituted an anti-corruption campaign with immediate executions for graft
– Established public petition drums for policy complaints
– Revived Confucian examinations to recruit scholars

### Economic Revitalization
The leadership transitioned from confiscatory “grain seizures” to systematic taxation:
– Implemented the “Military Camp Estate” system where harvests were split 40% (government), 50% (peasants), and 10% (landlords)
– Standardized copper coinage (Xingchao Tongbao) to replace shell currency
– Reformed salt administration, increasing revenue from 50,000 to over 100,000 taels annually
– Initially banned alcohol to conserve grain, later lifted as agriculture recovered

Military Reforms and Ethnic Integration

### Discipline and Training
The army enforced draconian discipline – one soldier was executed for accidentally killing a child during grain transport. Regular drills were conducted in expanded Kunming training grounds, growing the force to 300,000 through:
– Incorporation of Ming defectors
– Recruitment of ethnic minority warriors

### Minority Policy
Breaking from Zhang Xianzhong’s Han chauvinism, the regime:
– Recognized local chieftains’ authority in exchange for troops and supplies
– Utilized minority combat specialties like elephant warfare
– Adjusted religious policies after initial Buddhist iconoclasm, later patronizing temples

The Legacy of Yunnan’s Resistance Base

From their Yunnan stronghold, the Daxi remnants launched major campaigns:
– 1650: Sun Kewang advanced into Guizhou and Sichuan
– 1652: Li Dingguo’s spectacular victories in Guangxi and Hunan
– 1653: Liu Wenxiu’s northern expedition

Though ultimately unsuccessful, their 13-year resistance:
– Demonstrated how frontier regions could sustain anti-Qing movements
– Pioneered effective multi-ethnic coalition warfare
– Inspired later Ming loyalist movements like the Revolt of the Three Feudatories

The Yunnan interlude remains a fascinating case study in rebel state-building, showing how pragmatic reforms could transform peasant insurgents into viable governing forces during China’s tumultuous Ming-Qing transition.