The Evolutionary Origins of Human Values

Human values have deep roots in our biological and cultural evolution. As early as 7 to 8 million years ago, our ancestors diverged from other hominids, setting the stage for the development of distinct moral frameworks. Anthropological and psychological studies reveal that certain core concerns—fairness, justice, love, hatred, precaution, and reverence for the divine—appear universally across human societies. These values may even extend to our closest primate relatives and other intelligent species like dolphins and whales.

Foraging societies, often small and resource-scarce, tended toward egalitarianism. With little material wealth to distribute, equality was not just an ideal but a practical necessity. Even in modern contexts, small autonomous groups—such as camping expeditions—often exhibit stronger egalitarian tendencies than larger societies. This suggests that fairness is not merely a cultural construct but an evolved trait reinforced by social dynamics.

The Agricultural Revolution and Shifting Values

The advent of agriculture 10,000 to 15,000 years ago introduced profound changes in human social organization. Unlike foraging bands, agricultural villages—often comprising around 50 people—could maintain internal equality while developing hierarchical ties to larger urban centers. However, the rise of states brought military, administrative, and ideological control, enabling elites to impose unequal structures.

Despite this, resentment toward inequality persisted. As noted in historical and religious texts, people often accepted disparities not out of genuine approval but because alternatives seemed unattainable. For instance, early Christianity preached spiritual equality (“There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female”) while reinforcing social hierarchies in practice. Similarly, Buddhism’s universal compassion coexisted with caste systems.

The Greek Exception: Democracy and Egalitarianism

Ancient Athens stands as a striking exception to the typical agricultural society. Unlike the divine kings of Egypt or Mesopotamia, Athenian democracy emphasized political equality among male citizens. Economic disparities were also less pronounced than in modern capitalist societies, with wealthy citizens compelled to fund public projects.

This egalitarian ethos was not just political but cultural. Greek rituals, such as animal sacrifices, reflected egalitarian principles—each participant received equal portions of meat. These practices, rooted in earlier foraging traditions, influenced institutions like citizenship and coinage. Athens’ pride in its democratic values, contrasted with Persia’s autocracy, underscores how cultural and geographic factors could defy deterministic models of societal development.

The Limits of Determinism: Energy, Values, and Capitalism

A key debate centers on whether human values are shaped primarily by biological evolution or material conditions like energy access. Some argue that cultural evolution drives societies toward “optimal” values for their energy systems. However, this view risks oversimplifying history by ignoring conflict, dissent, and the persistence of inherited moral instincts.

For example, capitalism’s emphasis on competition, quantifiable growth, and efficiency has reshaped modern values, often sidelining fairness and sustainability. Yet, as climate change demonstrates, these inherited values—fairness, justice, and precaution—remain essential for survival. The challenge lies in reconciling economic systems with the moral frameworks that once ensured small-scale societies’ resilience.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The tension between egalitarian instincts and hierarchical systems persists today. Movements for economic justice, gender equality, and environmental sustainability reflect age-old struggles against entrenched power. Meanwhile, technological advances—from AI to renewable energy—offer both risks and opportunities to realign modern values with our evolutionary heritage.

The lesson from history is clear: while material conditions influence values, they do not determine them. Human agency, cultural innovation, and moral conviction can reshape societies, as Athens and other exceptions prove. The task ahead is not to abandon our evolved values but to adapt them to the complexities of a globalized world.

In the end, the paradox of human values—innate yet malleable, universal yet contested—remains at the heart of our collective future. Whether we prioritize GDP or fairness, efficiency or sustainability, will define the next chapter of our species’ story.