The Rise of a Reformer Turned Traditionalist

Emperor Qianlong (1711–1799), the fourth ruler of China’s Qing dynasty, ascended the throne in 1735 with ambitions to surpass his predecessors. Initially, his reign mirrored the reformist spirit of his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor, who had embraced Han Chinese customs—abolishing human sacrifice in 1673 and adopting burial practices over Manchu cremation. Early in his rule, Qianlong demonstrated flexibility, streamlining governance and patronizing the arts. Yet, as he aged, a striking shift occurred: the emperor who once modernized became a staunch defender of tradition, resisting the cultural and political tides reshaping the world.

The Battle for Manchu Identity

### The Language Divide
Qianlong’s conservatism crystallized around preserving Manchu identity. He decried the decline of the Manchu language, lamenting that even imperial guards conversed in Chinese. In response, he mandated:
– Linguistic Enforcement: High-ranking Manchu officials were required to use Manchu in court.
– Institutionalized Testing: The Imperial Clan Court held biannual Manchu language exams.
– Educational Tools: Eleven Manchu reference texts, like Qingwen Dianyao, were published.

Despite penalties for noncompliance—ranging from reprimands to demotions—the policy faltered. Manchu-Han assimilation, driven by practicality, proved irreversible.

### Clinging to Custom
Qianlong selectively upheld Manchu traditions. He revived the Mulan Hunting Rituals (halted under his father, Yongzheng) to promote martial prowess, yet also insisted on archaic practices like carrying personal knives for meat-cutting—a rule he enforced during a 1743 ancestral ceremony, rebuking Prince Hongxiao for noncompliance. Such rigidity alienated younger Manchu elites adapting to Han lifestyles.

The Zenith and Blind Spots of Qing Power

### Domestic Triumphs
Qianlong’s China was unmatched in scale and wealth:
– Territory: The empire spanned 14.5 million km², encompassing Tibet, Xinjiang, and Taiwan.
– Demographics: Population tripled to 313 million by 1793.
– Economy: GDP accounted for 30% of the global total, dwarfing European rivals.
– Diplomacy: The Ten Thousand Nations Tribute painting symbolized China’s centrality, depicting envoys from Britain, Japan, and Southeast Asia bearing gifts.

### The World Beyond the Throne
While Qianlong celebrated these achievements, the West underwent revolutions:
– Industrialization: Britain’s 1765 textile innovations sparked mechanization.
– Political Upheaval: The American (1775) and French Revolutions (1789) redefined governance.
– Scientific Progress: Universities and academies proliferated in Moscow (1755) and Boston (1780).

China, however, remained insulated. Qianlong dismissed British envoy Lord Macartney’s 1793 mission, refusing trade concessions like open ports or tax exemptions. Though his rejection preserved sovereignty, it ignored Britain’s industrial and naval ascendancy.

The Cost of Conservatism

### A Missed Opportunity
Macartney’s failed embassy revealed Qing China’s fatal disconnect. The emperor’s adherence to tributary diplomacy—viewing Britain as another vassal—blinded him to geopolitical shifts. His policies preserved Manchu identity but stifled adaptation, leaving China unprepared for the 19th century’s colonial pressures.

### Legacy of Stagnation
Qianlong’s reign marked both the apex and inflection point of Qing power. His cultural rigidity, while rooted in ethnic pride, exacerbated China’s decline. By 1839, the empire’s technological and military lag would culminate in the Opium Wars—a crisis foreshadowed by his resistance to change.

In the end, Qianlong’s paradox was this: the very traditions he fought to uphold became chains tethering China to the past.