Introduction: A Turbulent Era of Fragmentation and Conflict

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period marks one of the most chaotic and violent chapters in Chinese history. It followed the collapse of the Tang Dynasty and preceded the establishment of the Song Dynasty, spanning a mere half-century yet characterized by rapid dynastic changes, incessant warfare, and widespread social unrest. This era witnessed five successive northern dynasties—Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou—whose rulers were predominantly military warlords who seized power through force rather than hereditary succession. The political instability and continuous conflicts during this time inflicted severe hardship on the peasantry, culminating in frequent and intense peasant uprisings that challenged the feudal order.

This article explores the historical background of this tumultuous period, the key events that fueled peasant resistance, the socio-economic and ethnic dimensions of their struggles, and the enduring legacy these uprisings left on Chinese history.

The Political Landscape: From Tang Decline to Five Dynasties

The fall of the Tang Dynasty in 907 CE plunged northern China into fragmentation. Zhu Wen . Over the next fifty-three years, four other dynasties succeeded one another in rapid succession, each emerging from the ashes of the previous regime through military conquest and political intrigue.

Northern China’s ruling class during this period largely consisted of military commanders who rose to power through battlefield prowess rather than aristocratic lineage. The frequent regime changes resembled a revolving door, with each dynasty engaging in brutal suppression to consolidate control. This incessant warfare between competing warlords devastated the countryside, leaving peasants caught between heavy taxation, forced conscription, and the ravages of battle.

Socio-Economic Crisis: The Plight of the Peasantry

The peasants bore the brunt of the political chaos. The military rulers imposed harsh laws, heavy taxes, and relentless demands for labor and military service. These burdens compounded existing hardships caused by decades of warfare, natural disasters, and neglect of critical infrastructure such as irrigation systems.

One significant factor exacerbating the suffering was the repeated breaching of the Yellow River’s dikes during prolonged conflicts between rival warlords, particularly between Zhu Quanzhong’s Later Liang and the Li family of Hedong. These deliberate floodings led to disastrous changes in the river’s course, widespread inundations, and massive destruction of arable land across the central and lower Yellow River basin. Regions such as southern Shanxi, southwestern Shandong, northern Hebei, and northwestern Henan experienced severe economic decline and social dislocation.

Furthermore, northern peasants faced dual oppression: exploitation by the feudal landlords and military governors of the Chinese heartland, and violent incursions by northern nomadic slave-owning aristocrats, such as the Khitan, who periodically launched raids into Chinese territory. This intersection of class exploitation and ethnic conflict intensified the peasants’ desperation and resistance.

Patterns of Peasant Resistance: Continuation from Tang to Five Dynasties

The peasant uprisings during the Five Dynasties period were not isolated phenomena but rather a continuation and evolution of the massive peasant revolts that had plagued the late Tang era. The collapse of the nationwide rebellions after the Tang left the peasantry weakened but not extinguished. The new regimes, though militarily powerful, faced persistent localized uprisings fueled by grievances over oppressive rule and social injustice.

Unlike the Tang rulers who often balanced military suppression with political concessions to quell rebellions, most rulers of the Five Dynasties adopted a more ruthless approach, relying on brutal military campaigns to crush dissent. This heavy-handed repression prevented uprisings from gaining large-scale momentum, but smaller revolts remained frequent and widespread.

The peasant rebellions often targeted the ruling dynasties directly, reflecting their anti-feudal character. Many of these uprisings also contained elements of ethnic resistance, especially when peasants confronted incursions or domination by non-Han groups. The struggles of this era thus embodied a complex intertwining of class and ethnic conflicts.

The Later Liang Dynasty : The Rise of Zhu Quanzhong and Early Uprisings

Zhu Quanzhong, the founder of the Later Liang dynasty, was born in 852 CE in Dangshan . His early life was marked by hardship—he lost his father young and was raised by relatives who reportedly regarded him with disdain due to his indolence. He initially joined the peasant rebel army led by Huang Chao during the late Tang rebellions but later defected to Tang loyalists. Exploiting the chaotic power vacuum, Zhu steadily expanded his control over the Yellow River basin by defeating rival warlords such as Qin Zongquan and Wang Shifan.

In 904 CE, Zhu assassinated Emperor Zhaozong of Tang and installed a puppet emperor before declaring himself emperor in 907, ushering in the Later Liang dynasty. His reign was marred by continuous warfare against competing warlords, especially the Li family of Hedong, whose father-son duo fiercely contested control of the central plains.

The prolonged military campaigns between Zhu and his rivals devastated large swaths of northern China. Peasants were conscripted en masse, sometimes under brutal coercion that included punishments like facial tattooing to prevent desertion. The heavy taxation and forced labor demands intensified rural suffering, provoking widespread unrest.

In response, peasants resorted to desperate measures, including self-mutilation to avoid conscription and open rebellion. Notable uprisings occurred in regions such as Hebei and Shandong, where bands of armed peasants and escaped soldiers resorted to banditry and insurrection. For example, in 907, Li Qian led a rebellion in Ruzhou , which was suppressed by officials loyal to the dynasty. Similarly, other insurgent groups fought battles in areas like Caizhou, only to be defeated by government forces.

Despite imperial edicts offering amnesty to deserters, many peasants persisted in their resistance, underscoring the depth of their grievances and the failure of the Later Liang rulers to address underlying social issues.

The Broader Significance of Peasant Uprisings in the Five Dynasties

The peasant rebellions during the Five Dynasties period reveal the profound social fissures in medieval Chinese society. They were not mere isolated outbreaks of violence but reflected systemic problems: the exhaustion of the peasantry under exploitative military regimes, the collapse of central authority, and the ethnic tensions on China’s northern frontier.

These uprisings, while often suppressed before swelling into large-scale revolutions, kept alive the spirit of resistance that had characterized the late Tang rebellions. They contributed to the eventual transformation of Chinese society under the Song dynasty, which sought to restore order, rebuild the economy, and implement reforms to avoid the mistakes of its predecessors.

Moreover, the conflicts between Han Chinese warlords and northern nomadic groups during this period foreshadowed the ongoing struggles between sedentary agriculturalists and steppe peoples that would shape much of China’s medieval and early modern history.

Conclusion: Legacy of the Five Dynasties Peasant Struggles

The peasant uprisings during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period stand as a testament to the resilience and agency of China’s rural population amid relentless political upheaval and exploitation. Though ultimately unsuccessful in overthrowing the feudal order of their time, these rebellions exposed the vulnerabilities of military regimes dependent on coercion and violence.

Their legacy is twofold: first, as a continuation of the broader pattern of popular resistance that punctuated Chinese dynastic history; and second, as a catalyst for the reforms and relative stability that the succeeding Song dynasty endeavored to achieve. Recognizing the peasantry’s role in shaping this critical juncture enriches our understanding of medieval China’s complex social fabric and the enduring quest for justice and equity in human societies.