Discovering China’s Earliest Named Neolithic Culture

In 1984, during a cultural relics survey in Hunan Province, archaeologists made a groundbreaking discovery that would rewrite our understanding of China’s Neolithic past. The Pengtoushan site, located in Lixian County, yielded evidence of a previously unknown prehistoric culture that predated all other identified Neolithic cultures in the middle Yangtze River region. This remarkable find, formally excavated in 1988 across 400 square meters, revealed a wealth of cultural artifacts that were distinct from any known Neolithic tradition in the area.

The Pengtoushan Culture, named after its type site, represents the earliest formally identified mid-Neolithic archaeological culture in China. Its establishment marked a significant breakthrough in understanding the prehistoric development of the middle Yangtze River valley, challenging previous assumptions about the timeline and characteristics of early Chinese civilizations.

Untangling the Cultural Web: Pengtoushan and Its Contemporaries

Before the recognition of Pengtoushan Culture, archaeologists had already identified two other early Neolithic cultures in the region: the Zaoshi Lower Layer Culture in the Dongting Lake area and the Chenbeixi Culture in southwestern Hubei. Initially, scholars struggled to determine the relationship between these cultures, with some suggesting Pengtoushan remains might belong to the Zaoshi Lower Layer Culture or represent a regional variant of Chenbeixi Culture.

Through meticulous comparative analysis, researchers eventually established that Pengtoushan Culture stood as a distinct archaeological tradition. The culture’s pure, homogeneous remains with clear characteristics set it apart from both Zaoshi Lower Layer and Chenbeixi cultures, despite their chronological proximity and geographical overlap. This clarification significantly advanced our understanding of the Neolithic cultural sequence in the Dongting Lake region.

The Heartland of Pengtoushan: Geography and Key Sites

Pengtoushan Culture flourished in northern Hunan Province, primarily concentrated around Dongting Lake and the lower reaches of four major rivers: Xiang, Zi, Yuan, and Li. The Dongting Lake basin, China’s second largest freshwater lake covering 2,820 square kilometers, created an ideal environment for early human settlement with its:

– Mild climate (260-300 frost-free days annually)
– Abundant rainfall (1,250-1,750 mm per year)
– Fertile plains (mostly below 50 meters elevation)
– Extensive water networks

The type site at Pengtoushan sits on a small mound 2-4 meters above the surrounding Lixiang Plain, covering approximately 60,000 square meters. Excavations revealed residential structures, 18 tombs, 15 ash pits, and numerous primitive yet distinctive pottery and stone tools. Another significant site, Bashidang (discovered 1985), yielded even more remarkable finds including:

– A moat and earthen enclosure surrounding a 30,000 square meter settlement
– Approximately 15,000 grains of carbonized rice
– Sophisticated wooden and bone tools

Material Culture: Pottery and Stone Tools of Pengtoushan

The Pengtoushan material culture reveals a society in transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic technologies:

Pottery Characteristics:
– Primarily sand-tempered or carbon-impregnated ware
– Hand-built using coil construction (visible layering in cross-sections)
– Low firing temperatures resulting in soft, fragile vessels
– Predominantly reddish or reddish-brown colors
– Heavy surface decoration (60% rope-marked at Bashidang)
– Simple forms: round-bottomed jars, bowls, and plates

Stone Tool Technology:
– Mostly flaked stone tools (very few polished implements)
– Large tools: choppers and discoidal implements
– Small tools: scrapers, borers, and engravers
– Ornaments: polished stone beads and pendants

Notably, Bashidang also produced an array of sophisticated bone tools (some up to 40cm long) and wooden implements including hoes, spades, and pestles, demonstrating advanced woodworking skills.

Dating and Chronological Development

Radiocarbon dating places Pengtoushan Culture between approximately 7000-6000 BCE. Scholars have proposed various periodization schemes (2-4 phases), but the culture is generally divided into early and late phases based on technological and stylistic evolution:

Early Phase:
– Carbon-tempered pottery dominates
– Thick, uneven vessel walls
– Coarse, irregular surface decoration

Late Phase:
– Reduced use of carbon temper
– Thinner, more uniform walls
– Refined decorative techniques
– Smaller vessel sizes

Settlement Patterns and Architecture

Pengtoushan settlements reveal early examples of planned communities:

Bashidang Settlement Features:
– 3 hectare area enclosed by moat and earthen wall
– Stone-paved entranceway
– Four architectural styles: semi-subterranean, surface-level, stilted, and platform

Pengtoushan Structures:
– Medium-sized surface buildings (6×5.6m) with postholes
– Small semi-subterranean dwellings (1.6×1.3m) with clay hearths

These findings demonstrate that moat-enclosed settlements emerged in the middle Yangtze region much earlier than previously believed, primarily for drainage and protection purposes.

The Agricultural Revolution in the Yangtze Valley

Pengtoushan Culture provides crucial evidence for early rice domestication:

Rice Evidence:
– Rice husks and grains embedded in pottery
– Rice pollen matching modern domesticated varieties
– 15,000 grains at Bashidang showing transitional forms

Subsistence Economy:
– Early rice cultivation (world’s most extensive early evidence)
– Hunting (deer, muntjac) and fishing
– Gathering (water chestnuts, foxnuts, lotus seeds)
– Possible animal domestication (cattle, pigs, chickens)

The culture also produced sophisticated woven goods including reed mats and baskets comparable to modern local products.

Mortuary Practices and Social Organization

Pengtoushan burial customs reveal aspects of their social structure:

– Dedicated communal cemeteries
– Primary and secondary burials
– Simple grave goods (1-4 pottery vessels or stone ornaments)
– Evidence of flexed burials and jar burials
– Possible age-based burial areas

The society appears to have been organized as small, egalitarian villages practicing collective farming and shared consumption – likely representing an early stage of matrilineal clan organization before its full development.

Legacy and Connections

While Pengtoushan Culture’s origins remain unclear, its descendants are identified as the Zaoshi Lower Layer Culture that followed in the same region. The relationship with contemporaneous Chenbeixi Culture continues to be debated, with some scholars viewing them as regional variants of a single culture while others maintain their distinctiveness.

The establishment of Pengtoushan Culture as an independent archaeological tradition marked a watershed moment in Chinese Neolithic studies, providing:
1. A firm chronological foundation for middle Yangtze prehistory
2. Critical evidence for early rice domestication
3. Insights into the development of complex settlements
4. A reference point for understanding cultural interactions across Neolithic China

As research continues, Pengtoushan’s significance only grows, offering a window into the crucial transition from mobile foraging to settled agricultural life in one of the world’s most important centers of early civilization.