The Fractured Alliance: Sparta, Persia, and the Fall of Cyrus the Younger
The collapse of Cyrus the Younger’s rebellion against his brother, Artaxerxes II, marked a turning point in Greco-Persian relations. Sparta, which had backed Cyrus’s failed bid for the Persian throne, found itself in open conflict with the empire. Rather than seeking reconciliation, Sparta leveraged its military experience from fighting alongside Cyrus’s forces. The city-state absorbed the remnants of the famed Ten Thousand mercenaries—Greek soldiers who had fought their way back to Anatolia—and positioned itself as the protector of Ionian Greeks against Persian governors like Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus.
For a brief moment, Persian control over Anatolia seemed precarious. But the Achaemenid Empire had a weapon more effective than armies: gold. Despite a stunning Spartan victory at Pactolus under King Agesilaus, Persian bribes ignited a coalition of Athens, Corinth, Argos, and Thebes against Sparta. The empire’s strategy was clear—divide and conquer.
The Athenian Resurgence: Persia’s Calculated Gamble
In a dramatic reversal, Athens—once Persia’s sworn enemy—became its ally. The exiled Athenian admiral Conon, now serving under Pharnabazus, crushed Sparta’s navy in 394 BCE, restoring Athens’ maritime influence. Persian-funded reconstruction of Athens’ Long Walls, aided ironically by former rivals like Thebes, symbolized the empire’s mastery of realpolitik.
The King’s Peace of 387 BCE formalized this balance of power: Persia reclaimed Ionia and Cyprus while proclaiming “autonomy” for other Greek city-states—a thinly veiled mandate for continued Persian influence. The treaty revealed Persia’s true strength: not military might, but the ability to exploit Greek disunity.
Egypt’s Defiance: The Rebellion That Shook the Empire
While Persia manipulated Greece, its own periphery revolted. In 405 BCE, Egypt’s 28th Dynasty declared independence, later succeeded by the militant Nectanebo I. This pharaoh transformed Egypt into a Persian nemesis—funding rebellions in Cyprus (under King Evagoras) and hiring Greek mercenaries. Persian campaigns in 390 and 386 BCE failed disastrously, with Evagoras even capturing Tyre.
The King’s Peace isolated Egypt’s allies, forcing Evagoras to submit. Yet when Artaxerxes II invaded Egypt in 374 BCE, his 200,000-strong army—led by Pharnabazos and Athenian general Iphicrates—faltered at the Nile floods. A botched tactical opportunity allowed Egypt to counterattack, humiliating Persia once more.
The Crisis of the Late Achaemenids: Rebellion and Regicide
Artaxerxes II’s final years (358 BCE) exposed imperial decay. Provincial revolts erupted from Cadusia (modern Gilan) to Phoenicia, while his court became a nest of intrigue. His successor, Artaxerxes III, seized power through fratricide but proved ruthlessly effective. After crushing Sidon’s rebellion (including massacring 5000 citizens), he reconquered Egypt in 342 BCE—desecrating temples and slaughtering resisters.
Yet victory was fleeting. The eunuch Bagoas poisoned Artaxerxes III and his heirs, installing the last Achaemenid king, Darius III. This instability invited catastrophe: within years, Alexander the Great would exploit Persia’s hollowed-out empire.
The Legacy of Persian Realpolitik
Persia’s 4th-century BCE maneuvers demonstrated three enduring lessons:
1. Gold Over Swords: Diplomatic bribery could achieve what armies could not.
2. The Perils of Overextension: Provincial revolts revealed administrative fragility.
3. Greek Mercenaries as Double-Edged Swords: Hired for their skill, they often became rebel assets.
Though the empire collapsed under Macedon, its tactics of financial diplomacy and divide-and-rule outlived it—echoing through Hellenistic and Roman geopolitics. For modern observers, this era offers a stark case study in how empires maintain influence through economic warfare and strategic patience.