Journey to the Sacred Lands

In the early 7th century, a determined Chinese monk embarked on what would become one of history’s most remarkable intellectual odysseys. Xuanzang, driven by an insatiable thirst for authentic Buddhist knowledge, crossed treacherous mountains and vast deserts to reach the sacred lands of South Asia. His travels through regions we now know as Pakistan and Kashmir yielded not only precious religious texts but also fascinating cultural observations that would reshape Chinese understanding of Buddhism.

Xuanzang’s journey represents a pivotal moment in the cultural exchange between China and South Asia. As he entered what ancient Chinese considered the “Western Regions,” every step brought new discoveries and challenges. His meticulous records, preserved in works like the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, provide an unparalleled window into 7th century Buddhist civilization.

Encounters with Sacred Sites and Scholarly Mysteries

Crossing into present-day Pakistan, Xuanzang first arrived at Bālūshā city (near modern Peshawar), where he discovered a small but historically significant monastery. This humble institution housed the original Sanskrit manuscript of the Abhidharma-pradīpa-śāstra (The Lamp of Abhidharma), composed by the renowned Master Īśvara. Remarkably, this text had disappeared from India but survived in Tibet, eventually finding its way to China’s Nationalities Cultural Palace – a striking example of how Buddhist knowledge circulated across Asia.

At the strategic river crossing of Udakhanda (modern Ohind), Xuanzang recorded a curious local belief: the river would allegedly capsize boats carrying sacred relics or precious Indian artifacts outward from the subcontinent. This folk tradition, possibly originating from practical attempts to control valuable trade goods, fascinated the pilgrim who would later face his own river crossing ordeal here during his return journey.

The Grammarian’s Legacy and Buddhist Transformation

In Śalātura (modern Lahore), Xuanzang documented the legacy of Pāṇini, the ancient Indian linguist who systematized Sanskrit grammar in his seminal Aṣṭādhyāyī (Eight Chapters). The monk recorded how Pāṇini’s work became so revered that people called him “Pāṇini the Sage.” More intriguingly, Xuanzang preserved a local Buddhist legend explaining the region’s strong faith:

A Buddhist arhat supposedly revealed that a boy being beaten for poor Sanskrit studies was actually Pāṇini reborn, condemned to rebirth for focusing on worldly knowledge rather than spiritual truth. This story, whether historical or allegorical, illustrates how Buddhist traditions sometimes appropriated and reinterpreted India’s intellectual heritage.

Correcting a Millennium-Old Mistake: Guanyin or Guanzizai?

In Udyāna (modern Swat Valley), Xuanzang made a startling philological discovery that challenged centuries of Buddhist tradition. Examining a statue of Avalokiteśvara, he asserted that the Chinese translation “Guanshiyin” (Perceiver of the World’s Sounds) was incorrect. Through meticulous Sanskrit analysis, he demonstrated the proper name should be “Guanzizai” (Lord Who Looks Down), derived from avalokita (observing) and īśvara (lord).

This revelation, buried in an obscure footnote of his records, highlighted how early translators had misread the Sanskrit compound, confusing īśvara (lord) with svara (sound). Despite Xuanzang’s authority, the erroneous “Guanyin” became too entrenched in Chinese Buddhism to change – a testament to how linguistic accidents can shape religious traditions.

Scholarly Haven in Kashmir

Xuanzang’s stay in Kashmir (ancient Kapiśa) proved particularly fruitful. This region, known for early Sino-Indian contacts dating back to the Han dynasty, offered two years of intensive study under the guidance of Master Saṅghasena. The elderly scholar, impressed by Xuanzang’s intellect, tailored an extraordinary curriculum: mornings devoted to Abhidharma-kośa, afternoons to Nyāyānusāra, evenings to logic (hetuvidyā) and linguistics (śabda-vidyā).

Kashmir’s significance as the site of Buddhism’s Fourth Council (under King Kaniṣka) made it a treasure trove of canonical texts. The local king provided Xuanzang with twenty scribes to copy manuscripts – foundational materials for his later translation projects in China. This royal patronage underscores how political support facilitated the transnational transmission of Buddhist knowledge.

The Historical “Wukong” and Literary Connections

Xuanzang’s records mention a Tang-era monk named Wukong who visited Kashmir decades after him. While this historical figure (active during Emperor Xuanzong’s reign) couldn’t have met Xuanzang, his name and journey may have influenced the fictional Monkey King in Journey to the West. This connection exemplifies how historical travels inspired China’s rich literary imagination.

Enduring Legacy of a Pilgrim-Scholar

Xuanzang’s observations about Kashmir’s Buddhist institutions reveal much about 7th century religious life. He noted declining numbers of monasteries (from 1,400 to many ruined) and monks (from 18,000 to fewer), yet still found vibrant scholarship and royal support for Buddhism. His account of monks dreaming about his arrival before he reached their monastery demonstrates how his reputation preceded him across Asia.

The pilgrim’s meticulous documentation of texts, traditions, and translation issues created an invaluable record for both historians and Buddhist practitioners. His corrections of mistranslations, though often unable to reverse popular usage, preserved crucial linguistic knowledge that might otherwise have been lost.

Xuanzang’s journey represents more than personal spiritual quest – it was a monumental enterprise of cross-cultural knowledge transfer. By bridging Chinese and Indian Buddhist traditions, preserving endangered texts, and critically examining received wisdom, this pilgrim-scholar shaped the intellectual history of all Asia. His travels remind us how individuals can transform our understanding of the sacred through both devotion and rigorous scholarship.