The Collapsing Ming Dynasty and Rebel Ascendancy

As the Ming Dynasty entered its 276th year, the empire stood on the brink of collapse. Years of famine, corruption, and peasant unrest had eroded the Mandate of Heaven. Among the rebel leaders emerging from this turmoil, Li Zicheng proved most formidable. By early 1644, his Shun forces controlled much of northern China, and Beijing lay within reach.

Li’s strategic brilliance manifested in his pincer attack on the Ming capital. While he personally led the northern thrust through Datong and Juyong Pass, his lieutenant Liu Fangliang executed a sweeping southern campaign that would cripple Ming defenses across Henan and Hebei provinces. This southern wing’s operations—often overshadowed by the drama of Beijing’s fall—proved equally decisive in sealing the dynasty’s fate.

Liu Fangliang’s Southern Thrust: A Campaign Diary

The southern offensive began in February 1644 when Liu’s army crossed the Yellow River at Puzhou. Contemporary accounts describe how Ming defenses crumbled upon contact:

– Henan Campaign (February-March 1644)
At Huaiqing, Ming deputy general Chen De surrendered without resistance, arresting his own superior to demonstrate loyalty. Liu established a complete civil administration—appointing defense commissioners, prefects, and magistrates—before turning northeast toward Shanxi.

The ancient strategic bastion of Shangdang (modern Changzhi) fell without bloodshed as Ming officials fled. Local gentry lamented in their journals: “This militarily vital region since antiquity was taken like plucking ripe fruit—Heaven has abandoned the Ming.” Liu captured the Ming Prince of Shen along with his treasury, implementing Li Zicheng’s controversial “asset recovery” policy where former officials and nobles were compelled to surrender wealth.

– Hebei Advance (March 1644)
Swinging through Anyang and Handan, Liu’s forces encountered collapsing resistance. At Guangping, former Ming general Zhang Ruxing volunteered as guide, offering strategies to take Beijing. By March 21, Liu’s vanguard reached Baoding—the last major stronghold shielding Beijing’s southern approaches.

The Siege of Baoding: Ming Loyalism’s Last Stand

Baoding’s defense became a microcosm of the dynasty’s death throes. While commoners welcomed the rebels, a faction led by scholar-officials like Shao Zongxuan insisted on resistance, forcing citizens to wear Chongzhen coins on their foreheads as loyalty symbols.

Liu’s siege tactics combined psychological warfare with overwhelming force:
– Artillery barrages shattered battlements “like autumn leaves in wind”
– Simultaneous attacks on multiple gates overwhelmed defenders
– Defections from within, including Ming Grand Secretary Li Jiantai’s retinue

The city fell on March 24 after night infiltrators opened the southern gates. True to Li Zicheng’s humanitarian edict, Liu restrained his troops from massacre—though participating gentry faced harsh reprisals. The execution of Ming official Yin Xi, his head displayed with the inscription “Capital-Resisting Evil Official,” signaled the new regime’s uncompromising stance.

Strategic Consequences and Historical Impact

Liu’s southern campaign achieved three pivotal outcomes:

1. Territorial Control
By securing Henan and southern Hebei, the operation prevented Ming remnants from establishing a southern redoubt. The simultaneous fall of Zhengding (March 7) under generals Ren Jirong and Ma Chongxi completed Beijing’s isolation.

2. Logistical Mastery
Establishing grain collection systems in captured territories sustained the northern advance. Baoding’s capture provided the final provisioning base before Beijing.

3. Psychological Blow
The rapid collapse of Ming provincial governments demoralized remaining loyalists. As one observer noted: “When even the scholar-gentry rush to welcome the rebels, dragging their robes in haste, who can say the Mandate remains?”

Legacy of the Southern Campaign

Though Li Zicheng’s Beijing triumph proved short-lived before Manchu intervention, Liu Fangliang’s campaign demonstrated remarkable operational artistry. Military historians note its parallels with:
– Timur’s multi-pronged invasions
– Napoleonic corps system maneuvers
– Modern mechanized pincer movements

The campaign also revealed tensions within rebel governance—between conciliatory policies toward commoners and harsh treatment of Ming elites—that would later complicate Shun administration.

Today, regional folk traditions in Henan and Hebei still recount stories of Liu’s justice—punishing corrupt officials while protecting farmers—suggesting the complex legacy of these pivotal months when China’s trajectory changed forever. The southern campaign remains a masterclass in revolutionary warfare, where military success and political messaging advanced hand in hand toward history’s turning point.