The Fall of the Second Itō Cabinet and the Rise of Matsukata

In the intricate political landscape of Meiji-era Japan, the resignation of Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi in 1896 created a power vacuum that demanded careful navigation. Emperor Meiji, adhering to established consultative practices, sought the opinions of key elder statesmen—Yamagata Aritomo, Kuroda Kiyotaka, Inoue Kaoru, and Matsukata Masayoshi. These figures represented the most influential voices from the Satsuma and Chōshū domains, the two power blocs that dominated Japanese politics during this period. With Itō, a Chōshū leader, stepping aside, the political arena opened for new leadership.

Public sentiment and media pressure played a significant role in shaping the outcome. Ōkuma Shigenobu, leader of the Progressive Party, had already formed an alliance with Matsukata, and both business circles and newspapers strongly favored either Ōkuma or Matsukata for the premiership. Bowing to this pressure, the decision was made to appoint Matsukata as prime minister. On September 18, 1896, the Second Matsukata Cabinet was officially formed, marking a new chapter in Japan’s constitutional development.

The composition of the cabinet reflected careful political balancing. Matsukata himself held the dual roles of Prime Minister and Finance Minister, while Ōkuma was appointed Foreign Minister. The cabinet included three members from the Satsuma faction, three from Yamagata’s circle, and two independents. Notably, no officials from Itō’s faction received appointments, signaling a temporary shift away from his influence. Itō himself withdrew from government, biding his time and preparing for his eventual return to power.

Political Maneuvering and Party Dynamics

The political situation remained volatile following the cabinet formation. Itagaki Taisuke’s appointment as Home Minister had pleased his Liberal Party, but his tenure lasted only four and a half months before Itō’s resignation sparked considerable discontent within party ranks. Recognizing the importance of maintaining ties with the Liberals, Itō acted strategically through his associate Itō Miyoji, providing substantial funds to the party in October 1896. This financial support demonstrated Itō’s commitment to collaboration with the Liberals and served as preparation for his future political return.

Meanwhile, tensions emerged within the media landscape. On October 25, 1896, the magazine “The Twenty-Sixth Century” published an article titled “On the Imperial Household Minister” that sharply criticized Itō. The piece accused him of authoritarian behavior and disrespect toward the emperor during his tenure as Imperial Household Minister dating back to 1885. The current Imperial Household Minister, Tsuboi Kumezo, formally requested that the Matsukata government punish the publication.

This request divided the cabinet, with Justice Minister Kiyoura Keigo and Vice Minister of the Imperial Household Tanaka Mitsuaki—both Yamagata allies—supporting disciplinary action. On November 14, 1896, both “The Twenty-Sixth Century” and the newspaper “Nihon,” which had republished the article, faced sanctions including distribution bans and suspension. Interestingly, Itō himself was traveling during this controversy and likely had limited involvement in the response to these attacks.

Itō’s Journey and Political Reflections

On November 10, 1896, Itō departed from Ōiso beginning a journey through western Japan that would provide both respite and political insight. His travels took him through Nara, Maiko, Hiroshima, Miyajima, and Shimonoseki, offering him opportunities to connect with local officials, military leaders, and old acquaintances. Historical records, particularly his correspondence with Mutsu Munemitsu, provide detailed accounts of this period.

In Hiroshima, Itō received warm welcomes from local officials and military officers, engaging in spirited conversations and gatherings. He visited Miyajima and enjoyed the scenic beauty. On December 11, he joined Navy Minister Saigō Tsugumichi in attending the graduation ceremony at the Etajima Naval Academy in Hiroshima Prefecture. That evening, returning to Hiroshima with Saigō, Itō—known for his robust appetite and drinking capacity even at age 55—reportedly became “thoroughly intoxicated” while hearing various news and rumors.

Itō’s correspondence reveals his deep concern for Mutsu’s wellbeing and his continued high expectations for his colleague. Writing on December 15, he expressed longing to see Mutsu’s face, unaware that Mutsu had already begun taking independent political actions without Itō’s knowledge. This trust in allies—sometimes bordering on naivete—characterized Itō’s approach to relationships and contrasted sharply with Yamagata’s more suspicious nature. This personal quality, developed from his youth, had earned Itō the trust of Emperor Meiji and many others throughout his career.

Growing Tensions and Party Realignments

By early 1897, political tensions were mounting in Tokyo while Itō remained somewhat detached from the immediate developments. On February 20, he wrote to Mutsu expressing concerns about rumors that Mutsu had met with Kōno Hironaka, a former senior leader of the Liberal Party. Itō’s letter revealed both his physical distance from the political center and his anxiety about being excluded from important discussions. The fact that their homes in Ōiso were separated by only three households yet communication remained strained highlighted the growing divide between the two statesmen.

Significant changes were indeed occurring within the Liberal Party. Before February 15, fifteen members of the House of Representatives, including senior figure Kōno Hironaka, had left the party—a development that caused considerable turmoil. This exodus resulted from power struggles between different factions within the party. The Tosa faction, led by Hayashi Yūzō and aligned with Itō Miyoji, supported Itagaki as party leader while suppressing reform efforts led by Kōno and others. The reformers believed that if terms could be agreed upon, collaboration with the Second Matsukata Cabinet and the ruling Progressive Party might be possible.

By late February, Itagaki and the Tosa faction had lost their leadership positions within the Liberal Party due to the internal chaos, and Matsuda Masahisa emerged as the party’s new leader. In a significant development on March 9, the Liberal Party formally invited Mutsu to join and assume leadership. Mutsu immediately tasked his confidant Okazaki Kunisuke—a House representative from Wakayama Prefecture and Mutsu’s cousin who led the Mutsu faction there—and Nakajima Nobuyuki—a member of the House of Peers and former Liberal Party leader who had known Mutsu since their days in the Kaientai during the Bakumatsu period—with advancing his political interests.

Cultural and Social Impacts of Meiji Political Struggles

The political maneuvering of this period reflected broader social transformations occurring in Meiji Japan. The emergence of political parties, though still elite-dominated, represented a gradual shift toward representative governance. The media’s role in challenging powerful figures like Itō demonstrated growing press freedom and its influence on public opinion. Business communities actively engaging in political discussions indicated the increasing importance of economic interests in policy formation.

The regional dimensions of politics remained significant, with domain-based affiliations continuing to influence alliances and appointments despite the formal abolition of the feudal system decades earlier. Personal relationships forged during the Bakumatsu period and Meiji Restoration continued to shape political networks, as evidenced by the enduring connections between figures like Mutsu and Nakajima.

Social practices, including the importance of informal gatherings over food and drink, facilitated political communication and deal-making. Itō’s renowned capacity for alcohol and conversation served him well in building relationships and gathering intelligence during his travels. These informal networks often proved as important as formal institutions in determining political outcomes.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The political transitions of 1896-1897 established important precedents for Japanese constitutional development. The careful consultation process undertaken by Emperor Meiji demonstrated the monarchy’s role as an arbiter between competing factions rather than an absolute ruler. The emergence of party politics, though still limited, pointed toward the eventual development of more representative government.

The strategic use of media both by critics of the government and by officials seeking to suppress criticism highlighted ongoing tensions between freedom of expression and state authority that would continue throughout modern Japanese history. The episode involving “The Twenty-Sixth Century” and “Nihon” represented an early example of government-media relations in constitutional Japan.

Itō’s temporary withdrawal from power and subsequent return established a pattern of elder statesmen maintaining influence even when not holding formal positions. This extra-constitutional influence would characterize Japanese politics for decades. His partnership with political parties, particularly the Liberals, foreshadowed the eventual development of party-based cabinets in the Taishō period.

The personal qualities of leaders—Itō’s trustfulness versus Yamagata’s suspicion—demonstrated how individual characteristics could shape political outcomes. These differences in leadership style would influence Japanese politics long after these specific conflicts had faded.

Finally, the regional dimensions of politics, while gradually diminishing, would continue to influence Japanese political culture. The competition between Satsuma and Chōshū factions, though giving way to party-based competition, established patterns of factionalism that would persist in different forms throughout modern Japanese history.

The events of 1896-1897 thus represent a critical transitional period in Japanese political history, bridging the earlier Meiji authoritarianism with the emerging party politics that would characterize the following decades. The personal rivalries, party formations, and constitutional developments of this period established patterns that would influence Japanese politics well into the twentieth century.