The Origins of the “Princess” Title and Its Evolution

The term “princess” (公主) underwent significant evolution before becoming standardized. Early Zhou Dynasty records refer to royal daughters as “Wangji” (王姬), meaning “royal daughters of the Ji clan.” The shift to “gongzhu” emerged when Zhou emperors delegated marriage ceremonies to ducal relatives, as recorded in Tang scholar Xu Jian’s Chuxue Ji. By the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), a strict hierarchy developed:

– Princess: Emperor’s daughter
– Eldest Princess (长公主): Emperor’s sister
– Grand Eldest Princess (大长公主): Emperor’s aunt

These titles weren’t merely honorifics—they came with substantial land grants (汤沐邑), administrative staff, and political influence rivaling regional kings.

Han Dynasty: The Golden Age of Political Princesses

The Western Han Dynasty witnessed princesses operating as power brokers:

### Case Study 1: Princess Liu Piao of Guantao
– Inherited the entire Eastern Palace treasury from Empress Dowager Dou
– Engineered the deposition of Crown Prince Liu Rong
– Secured her daughter Chen Jiao’s position as empress (later deposed)
– Orchestrated Liu Che’s (Emperor Wu) rise to heir apparent

### Case Study 2: Princess Yangxin
– Introduced the dancer Wei Zifu to Emperor Wu, displacing Chen Jiao
– Mirrored Guantao’s earlier machinations in a generational power transfer

These princesses wielded “soft power” through:
1. Matrimonial alliances
2. Control over imperial harems
3. Economic resources from vast estates

Tang Dynasty: Ritualized Status in a Bureaucratic Empire

The New Book of Tang formalized a rigid hierarchy:

| Title | Rank | Households (post-713 reforms) |
|———————|———|——————————-|
| Grand Eldest Princess | Zheng 1-pin | 2,000 |
| Eldest Princess | Yi-pin | 2,000 |
| Princess | Yi-pin | 1,000 |

Notable Tang princesses like:
– Princess Tong’an (married a provincial governor)
– Princess Linchuan (wed a general’s son)
– Princess Dongyang (fell victim to Wu Zetian’s purges)

Their political influence diminished compared to Han predecessors, becoming more symbolic figures in state rituals.

The Northern Wei Exception: Princesses as Female Officials

Under Emperor Xiaowen’s reforms (471–499 CE), some princesses like Dunqiu Eldest Princess served as “Palace Attendants” (女侍中), acting as liaisons between inner and outer courts at the equivalent of 2nd-rank bureaucratic status.

Song to Ming: The Decline of Princess Power

### Song Dynasty Innovations
– Posthumous promotions of deceased princesses
– Brief 1113–1127 renaming to “Imperial Ji” (帝姬) under Huizong
– The tragic case of Princess Fukang (d. 1070):
– Forced marriage to cousin Li Wei
– Palace gate scandal involving nighttime entry
– Sima Guang’s criticism in Sushui Jiwen

### Ming-Qing Restrictions
– Ming statutes barred consorts’ families from politics
– Qing differentiated titles sharply:
– Gurun Princess (固伦公主): Empress’s daughter (“gurun”=Manchu for “nation”)
– Heshuo Princess (和硕公主): Concubine’s daughter
– Mostly became pawns in Manchu-Mongol marriage alliances

Why Pop Culture Loves “Villainous Princesses”

Modern TV dramas exaggerate historical realities because:
1. Dramatic Potential: Princesses occupied liminal spaces between harem and court
2. Proxy Power: They represent female agency in patriarchal systems
3. Historical Echoes: Figures like Princess Guantao did influence successions

Yet as the Song historian Sima Guang noted, even the most privileged women remained “birds in gilded cages”—their power always contingent on male relatives’ favor.

Conclusion: A Barometer of Imperial Power

The trajectory from Han kingmakers to Qing figureheads mirrors China’s centralization of authority. What begins as familial influence in early empires becomes ritualized status in bureaucratic states—a microcosm of how imperial systems neutralized alternative power centers. The enduring fascination with these women speaks to our modern preoccupation with power, gender, and the price of privilege in rigid hierarchies.