The Rise of Zhu Yuanzhang and His Military Commanders

In the mid-14th century, as the Yuan Dynasty’s grip on China weakened, a former peasant monk named Zhu Yuanzhang emerged as a formidable rebel leader. His military successes relied heavily on a core group of talented commanders, chief among them Xu Da – a farmer’s son who rose to become Zhu’s most trusted general through self-education in military strategy. Xu’s battlefield accomplishments read like a conquest map of southern China: victories at Taiping, Liyang, Nanjing (then called Jiankang), and decisive battles against rival warlords like Chen Youliang.

By 1367, Xu Da had been elevated to Duke of Xin and Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Expedition forces. His deputy, the fiercely aggressive Chang Yuchun, complemented Xu’s strategic mind with unmatched battlefield ferocity. This command structure represented the culmination of Zhu Yuanzhang’s fifteen-year rise from rebel leader to founder of the Ming Dynasty.

The Collapsing Yuan Dynasty: A House Divided

Facing this formidable southern force stood the crumbling Yuan Dynasty under Emperor Toghon Temür (posthumously called Emperor Huizong but mockingly referred to as “Shun Di” – the Compliant Emperor). The Yuan court had become a caricature of misrule:

– Economic policies like currency manipulation (“changing banknotes”) caused hyperinflation
– Massive land grants to favorites created widespread peasant displacement
– Ethnic discrimination laws institutionalized Han Chinese oppression
– Extravagant palace projects continued amid nationwide famine

More critically, the Yuan military lacked unified command. Real power rested with regional warlords like Koko Temür (Wang Baobao), the mixed Han-Mongol general who controlled Henan. Other commanders like Li Siqi in Shaanxi pursued their own agendas, leaving the dynasty without coordinated defense against Zhu’s impending attack.

Zhu Yuanzhang’s Political Strategy: From Rebel to Legitimate Ruler

Zhu’s political maneuvering proved as calculated as his military campaigns. His “Proclamation on the Northern Expedition to Drive Out the Barbarians” carefully distanced him from earlier peasant rebels like the Red Turbans while positioning himself as China’s legitimate ruler:

– Avoided anti-Mongol rhetoric that might unite Yuan loyalists
– Highlighted Yuan’s moral failings rather than ethnic issues
– Promised equal treatment for surrendered Mongols
– Positioned himself as restorer of Confucian order

This sophisticated propaganda contrasted sharply with the Red Turbans’ crude but popular battle song: “Wielding ninety-nine steel blades/We’ll slaughter every Tartar till none remain.” Zhu was transitioning from rebel leader to founder of a new dynasty.

The Battle of Xuzhou: Fu Youde’s Tactical Masterclass

The prelude to the Northern Expedition occurred at Xuzhou in 1367. This strategic city on the Yellow River and Grand Canal had been held by Yuan defector Lu Ju until Zhu assigned its defense to Fu Youde – another former Yuan officer who had switched allegiances.

When Yuan general Li Er led a cavalry force to retake Xuzhou, Fu employed brilliant deception:

1. Initial Feigned Weakness: Withdrew behind city walls, appearing intimidated
2. Provocation: Launched targeted raids on foraging parties
3. Psychological Warfare: Displayed unorthodox infantry formations outside walls
4. Decisive Trap: Used disciplined spear formations to counter cavalry charges

The result was a crushing victory that secured Xuzhou as the launch point for the Northern Expedition. Fu’s promotion to Provincial Administrator reflected Zhu’s appreciation for commanders who combined courage with tactical ingenuity.

The Northern Expedition Strategy: Zhu’s Grand Design

At the war council, Zhu outlined his meticulous campaign plan:

1. First Phase: Take Shandong to “remove the screen” protecting the north
2. Second Phase: Swing southwest through Henan to “clip the wings” of the capital
3. Third Phase: Capture Tong Pass to “hold the threshold” of the northwest
4. Final Approach: Isolate and besiege Dadu (Beijing)

This cautious, phased approach reflected Zhu’s characteristic pragmatism – a stark contrast to Chang Yuchun’s preferred direct assault on the Yuan capital. Zhu emphasized strict discipline, forbidding looting and ordering protection of civilians – policies that would help secure popular support in conquered territories.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Xuzhou campaign and subsequent Northern Expedition marked several historic firsts:

– First major Han Chinese reconquest of northern China after centuries of foreign rule
– Establishment of Ming Dynasty’s military doctrine combining strategic patience with tactical flexibility
– Demonstration of how political messaging could complement military campaigns
– Beginning of six centuries of Beijing-Nanjing geopolitical tension

Fu Youde’s victory at Xuzhou particularly showcased Ming military innovation – using disciplined infantry to neutralize the Mongol cavalry advantage that had dominated Eurasia for centuries. This tactical blueprint would characterize Ming operations throughout the Northern Expedition.

The careful coordination between Zhu’s political vision, Xu Da’s strategic planning, and field commanders’ battlefield execution created an unstoppable momentum. Within a year, the Ming army would indeed “roll up the north like a mat,” ending nearly a century of Mongol rule and establishing one of China’s greatest native dynasties.