Introduction: A Nation in Transition

In the tumultuous years following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the nascent Republic of China grappled with profound political instability, competing visions of governance, and the fragile legacy of its revolutionary origins. The period between 1916 and 1917 witnessed one of the most dramatic and consequential power struggles in modern Chinese history—a confrontation now remembered as the “Presidential Palace vs. State Council Dispute.” This episode not only exposed the deep divisions within the republican government but also set the stage for further fragmentation and warlord dominance. By examining the key figures, legal frameworks, and escalating tensions that defined this crisis, we gain critical insight into the challenges of building a functional democracy in early 20th-century China.

The Aftermath of Yuan Shikai’s Death

The sudden demise of Yuan Shikai on June 6, 1916, created a power vacuum that threatened to unravel the already fragile republic. Yuan, who had served as the first formal president of the Republic of China, had attempted to restore monarchical rule by proclaiming himself emperor in 1915—a move that provoked widespread opposition and ultimately failed. His death left the nation leaderless and exposed the unresolved tensions between northern military elites and southern revolutionary forces.

Vice President Li Yuanhong succeeded Yuan as president, in accordance with constitutional protocols. Meanwhile, Duan Qirui, a prominent military leader and key figure in the Beiyang clique, assumed the role of premier. Li, a former Qing naval officer who had been thrust into prominence during the 1911 Revolution, was seen by many as a moderate figure capable of bridging divides. Duan, by contrast, embodied the military establishment’s influence and was widely regarded as the strongman of the new administration. Their partnership was initially viewed as a stabilizing force, but underlying differences in ideology and ambition would soon surface.

Restoring the Provisional Constitution

One of Li Yuanhong’s first acts as president was to reinstate the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, which had been promulgated on March 11, 1912, but suspended by Yuan Shikai. This document, drafted by revolutionary leaders including Sun Yat-sen, was intended to serve as an interim foundational law until a permanent constitution could be enacted. Its restoration was both a symbolic and practical gesture aimed at reconciling with southern revolutionaries and reaffirming the republic’s commitment to constitutional governance.

Article 54 of the Provisional Constitution explicitly stated that until a formal constitution was adopted, the provisional charter would hold the force of constitutional law. This provision granted Li Yuanhong a legal basis for his authority and framed his actions within a normative framework. However, the document also contained ambiguities—particularly regarding the separation of powers between the presidency and the premiership—that would soon become sources of contention.

The Ill-Fated Partnership: Li Yuanhong and Duan Qirui

On the surface, Li and Duan seemed complementary figures: Li brought legitimacy and civilian oversight, while Duan provided military backing and administrative experience. Yet from the outset, their collaboration was fraught with mutual suspicion and competing agendas. Li favored a more consultative, law-based approach to governance, while Duan operated through informal networks of military loyalty and preferred decisive, top-down control.

The structure of the Provisional Constitution further complicated their relationship. While the president was designated as the head of state, the premier and the State Council held significant executive powers, including policy formulation and implementation. The president’s role was largely ceremonial—approving measures proposed by the council—but retained the authority to issue orders and commands based on legal provisions. This division of responsibilities created fertile ground for jurisdictional disputes.

The Catalyst: Xu Shuzheng’s Arrogance and the Breakdown of Protocol

The first major flashpoint in the Li-Duan relationship centered on Xu Shuzheng, who served as chief secretary of the State Council and was Duan Qirui’s most trusted aide. Xu was a brilliant but notoriously abrasive figure—charismatic to his allies and insufferable to his opponents. His duties included shuttling documents between the State Council and the Presidential Palace for the president’s signature.

Under the Provisional Constitution, Article 31 authorized the president to issue commands and decrees necessary for executing laws. In practice, this meant Li Yuanhong was expected to endorse decisions made by Duan’s cabinet without substantive input. Xu Shuzheng exacerbated this dynamic through his dismissive attitude toward the president. On multiple occasions, when Li inquired about the content or rationale of a policy, Xu reportedly replied, “It’s not your concern. Just sign it.”

Such behavior reflected a broader culture of militarist contempt for civilian authority. To Xu and his allies, Li was little more than a figurehead. To Li, however, these acts were not only personally insulting but also constitutionally illegitimate. By early 1917, Li had reached his breaking point and demanded that Duan dismiss Xu. Duan refused, viewing the demand as an affront to his authority and an attempt to undermine the State Council’s independence.

The Debate Over World War I

Simultaneously, a foreign policy crisis deepened the rift between president and premier. The issue was whether China should enter World War I on the side of the Allied Powers. Duan Qirui strongly advocated for entry, arguing that it would bolster China’s international standing and potentially lead to territorial concessions from Germany . He also saw strategic benefits in aligning with Japan, which had offered loans and military support in exchange for cooperation.

Li Yuanhong opposed intervention. He feared that involvement in a distant conflict would divert resources from domestic stability and strengthen Japanese influence over Chinese affairs. Moreover, many parliamentarians and public intellectuals shared his skepticism, warning that the war could exacerbate internal divisions.

The debate was not merely ideological; it was deeply personal. Duan interpreted Li’s opposition as obstructionism, while Li saw Duan’s push for war as an attempt to consolidate military power and secure foreign funding for his faction. When Duan attempted to bypass presidential approval by rallying provincial military governors to his cause, Li accused him of violating constitutional procedures.

The Dismissal and Its Aftermath

In May 1917, the conflict reached a climax. Li Yuanhong invoked his constitutional authority to dismiss Duan Qirui as premier. The move was legally precarious—while the Provisional Constitution granted the president powers to appoint and remove officials, it was unclear whether this extended to the premier without parliamentary consent. Duan immediately denounced the dismissal as illegal and withdrew to Tianjin, where he began mobilizing military support.

What followed was a tragicomic escalation. Duan enlisted the help of Zhang Xun, a conservative general known for his loyalty to the Qing dynasty. Zhang agreed to march on Beijing—not to restore Duan, but to reinstate the last emperor, Puyi. In July 1917, Zhang’s forces entered the capital, briefly restored the Qing monarchy, and forced Li Yuanhong to flee. The restoration collapsed within days due to lack of support, but it provided Duan with an opportunity to return to power as the “savior of the republic.” He drove Zhang out, reclaimed the premiership, and effectively marginalized Li Yuanhong, who resigned shortly afterward.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Presidential Palace vs. State Council Dispute exposed the fragility of republican institutions in post-imperial China. It demonstrated how personal rivalries, institutional ambiguities, and militarist intervention could undermine constitutional governance. The crisis also marked a turning point: thereafter, military factions increasingly dominated politics, and the hope for a unified, democratic China faded.

The events of 1917 foreshadowed the warlord era that would plague China for the next decade. They also highlighted the enduring tension between legal norms and raw power—a theme that would recur throughout modern Chinese history. By revisiting this crisis, we are reminded that the path to stable governance is often fraught with unintended consequences and that the shadows of the past continue to shape the present.

Conclusion: Lessons from a Constitutional Crisis

The 1917 dispute between Li Yuanhong and Duan Qirui remains a poignant case study in the challenges of political transition. It illustrates how easily constitutional frameworks can be subverted by personal ambition and structural weaknesses. Yet it also underscores the enduring human desire for legitimacy, order, and respect—whether in the halls of power or the pages of history. As we reflect on this chapter, we are invited to consider not only what happened, but why it matters for understanding the complexities of nation-building and the perpetual quest for balance between authority and liberty.