The Ancient Doctrine of Fighting Without Retreat

Military history is replete with moments where outnumbered or demoralized forces achieved impossible victories by embracing desperation. The concept of placing soldiers in a “death ground” (死地) — a situation where they must fight or perish — originates from Sun Tzu’s The Art of War (孙子兵法). In his chapter on the “Nine Terrains,” Sun Tzu famously declared:

> “Place your army in deadly peril, and it will survive; plunge it into desperate straits, and it will come off in safety.”

This philosophy argues that when soldiers face certain death unless they fight, their survival instinct transforms into unshakable resolve. The Bai Zhan Qi Lue (Hundred Marvelous Battles, 百战奇略), a Ming Dynasty military treatise, expanded on this idea but cautioned that such tactics were no substitute for proper training, discipline, and a just cause.

The Historical Crucible: Qin’s Collapse and Chu’s Revolt

By 207 BCE, the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE) was crumbling under peasant revolts. After the deaths of rebel leaders Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, the mantle of resistance fell to Xiang Yu (项羽), a brilliant but ruthless Chu general. The pivotal moment came at the Battle of Julu (巨鹿之战), where Xiang Yu faced the Qin’s elite army under Zhang Han (章邯).

Key factors leading to the confrontation:
– Qin’s Overextension: After crushing the Chu rebel Xiang Liang (项梁, Xiang Yu’s uncle), Zhang Han assumed Chu was defeated and turned north to attack Zhao.
– The Siege of Julu: Qin forces, led by Wang Li (王离), surrounded Zhao’s king at Julu. Zhang Han fortified supply routes (甬道) to starve the city.
– Chu’s Hesitation: The Chu king appointed Song Yi (宋义) to lead reinforcements, but Song delayed for 40 days, feasting while Julu suffered.

Xiang Yu’s Ruthless Gambit

Xiang Yu’s actions became a textbook application of the “death ground” strategy:

1. Eliminating Weak Leadership:
– Accusing Song Yi of treason and incompetence, Xiang Yu beheaded him in his tent, declaring: “A general who neglects his men for private feasts betrays the state.”
– This coup unified Chu forces under Xiang Yu’s command.

2. Psychological Warfare:
– After crossing the Zhang River (漳河), Xiang Yu ordered the destruction of boats, cooking pots, and supply depots. Each soldier carried only three days’ rations.
– His proclamation: “Victory lies ahead; behind us is only the river.”

3. The Battle of Nine Engagements:
– Chu troops, now fighting with no escape, shattered Qin’s supply lines and isolated Wang Li’s corps.
– Eyewitness accounts describe Chu soldiers “each worth ten foes,” their battle cries shaking the earth. Allied armies watched in awe from their fortifications, refusing to intervene.
– The Qin collapse was total: Wang Li captured, Su Jiao (苏角) slain, and Zhang Han forced into eventual surrender.

Cultural Echoes: Desperation as a Double-Edged Sword

The “death ground” tactic influenced East Asian warfare for centuries, but its legacy is nuanced:

– Short-Term Triumphs: Similar strategies appear at Jingxing (井陉之战, 204 BCE), where Han Xin (韩信) arrayed troops with their backs to a river to defeat Zhao.
– Ethical Dilemmas: Confucian scholars criticized such methods as manipulative. The Bai Zhan Qi Lue emphasized that “courage springs from righteousness, not coercion.”
– Modern Parallels: WWII’s “no retreat” policies (e.g., Stalin’s Order No. 227) echoed Xiang Yu’s methods, often with catastrophic human costs.

Why Julu Still Matters

Xiang Yu’s victory at Julu sealed the Qin Dynasty’s fate, but his reliance on psychological extremes foreshadowed his downfall. Within five years, his refusal to adapt to peacetime governance led to defeat by Liu Bang (刘邦) and the rise of the Han Dynasty.

Key lessons for leadership and conflict:
1. Temporary Resolve ≠ Lasting Power: Fear-driven unity dissipates when the crisis ends.
2. The Moral Component: Sun Tzu’s “death ground” works best when paired with genuine loyalty.
3. Historical Irony: The same desperation that won Julu doomed Xiang Yu at Gaixia (垓下), where Han troops used Chu folk songs to trigger mass desertions.

From boardrooms to battlefields, the allure of the “burn the ships” moment persists. Yet as the Bai Zhan Qi Lue warned, sustainable strength comes not from cornered rats, but from trained tigers.