Introduction: The Geopolitical Struggle over Xinjiang

In the mid to late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty faced unprecedented challenges in safeguarding its vast western frontier, particularly the region of Xinjiang. This period was marked by the aggressive expansion and rivalry of the great imperial powers, especially Britain and Russia, as they vied for dominance in Central Asia—a contest often referred to as the “Great Game.” The Qing Empire’s control over Xinjiang was directly threatened by external incursions and internal rebellions, amplified by the shifting balance of power in the region.

Between the 1860s and 1870s, the strategic importance of Xinjiang grew dramatically. British-backed forces from the Khanate of Kokand invaded the region, attempting to carve out a sphere of influence, while Russian troops moved into adjacent territories, seizing control of parts of the Ili region. These incursions exposed the Qing’s weakening grip on its western territories and underscored the urgent need for a military and political response.

This article explores the historical context, key military campaigns, and lasting impacts of the Qing government’s efforts to reclaim Xinjiang during this critical juncture, focusing especially on the pivotal northern Xinjiang campaign led by General Zuo Zongtang in the years 1876 to 1878.

The Great Game and the Threat to China’s Western Borders

The 19th century was an era of intense colonial competition among capitalist powers. Britain and Russia, in particular, were locked in a tense rivalry over Central Asia, each seeking to expand their influence and control over key trade routes and buffer zones. This geopolitical contest brought the “Great Game” to the doorstep of the Qing Empire, threatening the stability of China’s western periphery.

The Khanate of Kokand, located in present-day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, became a proxy for British ambitions. In 1865, under British encouragement, the military commander Yakub Beg led an invasion of Xinjiang, establishing himself as a self-declared “khan” and setting up a regime hostile to Qing rule. Meanwhile, Russia capitalized on Qing weakness by occupying the Ili region in 1871, directly challenging China’s sovereignty.

The dual threat of British-supported incursions from the south and Russian advances from the north placed Xinjiang in danger of partition and colonization. Recognizing the gravity of the situation, the Qing government resolved to launch a concerted military campaign to restore order and preserve territorial integrity.

The Qing Response: Mobilizing for the Reconquest of Xinjiang

Among the Qing officials who championed the reconquest of Xinjiang was Zuo Zongtang, the Governor-General of Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces. Zuo, a respected military leader and statesman, was tasked with organizing and leading the campaign to reclaim the region.

By April 1876, Zuo Zongtang had relocated his headquarters to Suzhou in Gansu, positioning himself to launch a northern advance into Xinjiang. The Qing military forces assembled for this mission were diverse, consisting of seasoned troops from various provinces, including Guangdong and Sichuan, as well as local garrisons already stationed in Xinjiang.

### Military Dispositions and Strategic Planning

The Qing forces were estimated to number approximately 60,000 to 70,000 soldiers. Key units included:

– Fourteen battalions of the Henan Songwu Army under Guangdong commander Zhang Yao, stationed in Hami.
– A cavalry battalion led by General Gui Xizhen, also in Hami.
– Thirty-nine battalions of cavalry and infantry commanded by Jin Shun, the commander of Urumqi.
– Cavalry under Erqing’e, deputy commander of Liangzhou, deployed around Barkol and the ancient city area.
– Additional reinforcements from Liu Jintang, commander of the Xiang Army, and Xu Zhanbiao, commander of Sichuan troops, moving through Hami toward Barkol.

The Qing’s strategic plan prioritized the recovery of northern Xinjiang before moving south. Their immediate objective was to retake Urumqi, a critical transportation hub located at the junction of the eastern and western Tianshan Mountains. The city’s geographical features—a valley surrounded by mountains with key outposts such as Gumu —made it a vital stronghold for controlling the region.

Zuo Zongtang ordered Zhang Yao’s forces to secure Hami and prevent eastern advances by enemy forces, while Jin Shun’s troops were tasked with monitoring enemy movements near Jimsar. Liu Jintang’s cavalry and infantry, after arriving at Barkol, were to coordinate with Jin Shun’s forces for the assault on Urumqi.

Opposing Forces: Yakub Beg’s Defensive Measures

Yakub Beg, the self-proclaimed Khan of Kashgaria, was aware of the Qing military buildup and took measures to defend his territories. His forces, numbering around 40,000, were deployed strategically across northern Xinjiang to protect key points and prevent Qing advances.

His commanders were positioned as follows:

– Ma Ren De, Ma Ming, and Bai Yan Hu were assigned to defend Urumqi, Changji, Hutubi, Manasi, and Gumu.
– Recognizing the importance of the Daban Pass and its surrounding narrow valleys—critical chokepoints connecting Urumqi to the east and southeast—Yakub Beg concentrated troops there.
– Additional forces were stationed at the transport hub of Takhtasun and at strategic sites such as Shengjintai and Qiketengmu to guard against Qing advances from Hami and Barkol toward Turpan.

Yakub Beg’s own command center was at Turpan, with his nephew Ekmu Khan overseeing the defense there, while his son Haikula managed the defenses at Takhtasun. This dispersal was intended to create a layered defense, relying on the rugged terrain of the Tianshan Mountains to hinder Qing movements.

The Northern Xinjiang Campaign: July to November 1876

### Early Movements and Skirmishes

By July 1876, Liu Jintang’s forces had arrived at Barkol and moved to the ancient city area, detecting that Ma Ren De occupied Urumqi, Bai Yan Hu was at Hongmiaozi, and Ma Ming held Gumu. On July 21, Liu Jintang scouted ahead to Jimsar with light cavalry to confer with Jin Shun on operational plans and to assess the terrain.

By the end of July, Jin Shun’s troops had taken control of Fukang , while Liu Jintang camped east of the city at Jiuyun Street, securing important passes along the route. In the meantime, Ma Ming was arrested by Yakub Beg and sent south amid suspicions of collusion with the Qing forces. This led to Gumu being defended by Wang Zhi and Jin Zhongwan with several thousand troops, bolstered by some of Yakub Beg’s forces.

To halt the Qing advance toward Urumqi, Bai Yan Hu withdrew from Hongmiaozi to Gumu, which became a focal point of resistance. Despite some Qing forces still arriving, Liu Jintang, aware that the local harvest was ready and provisions were sufficient, decided to press forward with an attack on Gumu without delay.

### The Assault on Gumu

Two main routes led from Fukang to Gumu: a southern path and a northern path. Liu Jintang’s forces chose to divide their troops to attack via both routes, aiming to encircle and overwhelm the defenders. The Qing troops utilized their superior firepower, discipline, and coordination to gradually push back the defenders.

After fierce fighting, Qing troops succeeded in capturing Gumu, which opened the way for the subsequent assault on Urumqi itself. This victory was a critical turning point, as it undermined Yakub Beg’s ability to maintain control over northern Xinjiang’s communication networks.

### Recapturing Urumqi and Consolidating Control

Following the fall of Gumu, Qing forces tightened their grip on the region. They advanced toward Urumqi, where resistance continued but was eventually overcome by the coordinated efforts of Liu Jintang and Jin Shun’s troops.

By November 1876, Qing forces had effectively secured northern Xinjiang, disrupting Yakub Beg’s defensive network and paving the way for the complete reconquest of the province. This campaign demonstrated the Qing military’s renewed vigor and strategic acumen under Zuo Zongtang’s leadership.

The Broader Campaign: Reclaiming Southern Xinjiang and Ili

While the northern campaign was underway, other Qing forces prepared to advance into southern Xinjiang and the Ili region, which remained under Russian occupation. The Qing government’s success in northern Xinjiang set the stage for the comprehensive campaign between 1876 and 1878 that ultimately restored Qing sovereignty over Xinjiang.

Zuo Zongtang’s campaign was not merely a military endeavor but also involved administrative reforms and infrastructure development to stabilize the region. His efforts helped integrate Xinjiang more firmly into the Chinese state, reversing years of fragmentation and foreign encroachment.

Cultural and Political Impacts of the Reconquest

The reconquest of Xinjiang had profound cultural and political ramifications. It reaffirmed China’s territorial integrity during a period of imperialist aggression and internal upheaval. The campaign also led to increased Han Chinese migration into Xinjiang, altering the demographic composition and setting the foundation for the region’s modern identity.

Zuo Zongtang’s leadership became emblematic of Qing resilience and adaptability. His pragmatic policies balanced military suppression with efforts to win local support, including respecting ethnic and religious diversity to a certain extent.

Furthermore, the campaign underscored the complexity of frontier governance in the Qing Empire, illustrating the challenges posed by distant, multi-ethnic borderlands vulnerable to foreign interference.

Legacy: Xinjiang in the Modern Era

The Qing reconquest of Xinjiang in the late 19th century marked a decisive moment in the region’s history. It halted the disintegration of Chinese control and laid the groundwork for Xinjiang’s incorporation into the modern Chinese state.

The events of this period continue to echo in contemporary discussions about Xinjiang’s political status, ethnic relations, and strategic importance. Understanding the historical context of the Qing campaign provides valuable insights into the enduring significance of Xinjiang as a frontier territory shaped by competing empires and diverse cultures.

Conclusion: Defending the Western Frontier in a Time of Imperial Rivalry

The Qing Dynasty’s campaign to reclaim Xinjiang during the 1870s was a critical response to the pressures of imperialism and internal fragmentation. Through meticulous military planning, effective leadership, and strategic coordination, the Qing government succeeded in repelling foreign-backed forces and restoring control over a vital region.

This episode exemplifies the broader struggles of non-Western empires to maintain sovereignty amidst the upheavals of the 19th century. The story of Xinjiang’s reconquest under Zuo Zongtang remains a testament to resilience and strategic vision in the face of formidable challenges.