The Uyghurs and the Contest for Xinjiang

The struggle between the Dzungar Khanate and the Qing Dynasty for dominance in Central Asia shaped the fate of the Uyghur people in what is now southern Xinjiang. Originally under Dzungar rule, the Uyghur lands became a vassal of the Qing after the empire’s victory.

The Uyghurs, known as the Uighurs during the Tang Dynasty, originally inhabited Mongolia. Before them, the region was home to Turkic peoples, but following the collapse of the Turkic Khaganate, the Uighurs rose to power. By the late Tang period, they were defeated by the Kyrgyz and forced to migrate westward, settling in the Hexi Corridor and eastern Xinjiang. With the rise of the Mongols, the Uighurs moved further south into the Tarim Basin, adopting Islam as their religion.

When the Dzungar Empire expanded into northern Xinjiang, the Uyghurs were divided into two factions—the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) and Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain)—due to differing Islamic sects. The Dzungar leader Galdan used this division to invade southern Xinjiang, supporting the Aq Taghliq faction and establishing a puppet regime.

The Revolt of the Khojas

After the fall of the Dzungars, southern Xinjiang nominally submitted to Qing rule. However, two brothers, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān (known as the Great and Little Khojas), sought independence. Their rebellion, known as the Revolt of the Khojas, marked a turning point in Qing expansion.

The Great Khoja based himself in Kashgar, while the Little Khoja ruled from Yarkand (modern-day Yecheng). Their forces marched along the northwestern edge of the Tarim Basin toward the strategic city of Kucha but were defeated by Qing troops. Though they escaped due to Qing tactical errors, their rebellion was far from over.

The Qing Counteroffensive

General Zhao Hui led the Qing campaign to crush the Khojas. His initial assault on Yarkand ended in disaster—his forces were besieged for three months before reinforcements arrived. This setback forced the Qing to rethink their strategy.

Recognizing that military force alone would not secure Xinjiang, Zhao Hui shifted tactics. The Khojas’ harsh taxation and mismanagement had alienated local populations, so the Qing implemented economic and political measures: reducing taxes, appointing local leaders, and trading scarce goods like cloth for essential military supplies. This gradual approach weakened the Khojas’ support.

By the time Zhao Hui launched his final campaign, the Khojas were isolated. They fled to Badakhshan (modern Afghanistan), where local rulers executed them and sent their heads to the Qing. With their defeat, the Qing solidified control over Xinjiang’s last unconquered region—its wealthiest and most culturally distinct territory.

The Legacy of Qing Rule in Xinjiang

The conquest of Xinjiang revealed the Qing’s governing philosophy: military force alone could not ensure stability. The Uyghurs, resistant to subjugation but desiring prosperity, required a policy of appeasement rather than oppression. Despite later rebellions, each uprising paradoxically strengthened central control. Even after losing territory to Tsarist Russia, Xinjiang remained under Qing rule.

The Jinchuan Wars: The Limits of Imperial Expansion

Beyond Xinjiang, the Qing sought to consolidate control over semi-autonomous regions in southwestern China. Historically, imperial maps exaggerated central authority—many mountainous areas remained under local chieftains (tusi) rather than direct administration.

The Qing aggressively dismantled these tusi systems, replacing them with centrally appointed officials (liuguan). The most significant resistance came from the Jinchuan region in Sichuan.

### The First Jinchuan War (1747–1749)

The conflict began when the chieftain Sonom of Greater Jinchuan bullied neighboring tribes. The Qing dispatched Zhang Guangsi to suppress him, but the rugged terrain and stone watchtowers (diaolou) made the campaign disastrous. After Zhang’s execution, the renowned general Yue Zhongqi secured a costly victory—three years and 20 million taels of silver later.

### The Second Jinchuan War (1766–1776)

A second campaign backfired when allied chieftains, fearing Qing domination, joined Greater Jinchuan’s rebellion. The war dragged on for a decade, costing 70 million taels and 600,000 troops. The Qing eventually prevailed, but the staggering resources expended revealed the empire’s geographical limits.

Conclusion: The End of Expansion

The Jinchuan Wars demonstrated that further expansion into Central Asia, the Himalayas, or Southeast Asia was unsustainable. The Qing had reached its logistical and economic limits. Though unaware of the technological revolutions on the horizon, the dynasty’s shift from expansion to consolidation marked the end of an era.

From Xinjiang’s deserts to Sichuan’s mountains, the Qing’s struggles underscored a timeless truth: conquest is fleeting, but governance endures through adaptability and understanding.