The Troubled Legacy of Egypt’s Military

For decades following the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849, the Egyptian army had become a shadow of its former self. British officers who encountered Egyptian forces during conflicts like the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War held them in contempt – General Wolseley famously dismissed them as “peasants from the Nile Delta who could never make proper soldiers.” The root causes of this military decline were systemic: poorly trained officers, abysmal soldier treatment, and chronic mismanagement. Soldiers went unpaid, medical care was nonexistent, and discipline was arbitrary and brutal.

This changed dramatically in 1883 when Britain assumed de facto control over Egypt following its occupation. Sir Evelyn Wood, tasked with rebuilding Egypt’s military, implemented revolutionary reforms based on a simple principle: “There are no bad soldiers, only bad officers.” His approach combined strict discipline with fair treatment – regular pay, proper rations, medical care, and due process for disciplinary matters. Wood established a military academy to train Egyptian officers, believing trust between British officers and Egyptian troops would develop over time.

Forging a New Army: Structure and Composition

The reformed Egyptian army adopted conscription with six-year service terms. Its structure reflected both strategic needs and colonial realities:

– 18 infantry battalions (including 6 Sudanese battalions recruited from the Shilluk and Dinka peoples of southern Sudan)
– 10 cavalry squadrons
– 6 artillery batteries
– A specialized camel corps

British officers held key positions, with Sudanese units having five British officers each compared to 3-4 in Egyptian units. This hybrid structure blended British military expertise with local manpower. Winston Churchill later observed the differences between Egyptian and Sudanese troops: while Egyptians were “strong, patient, healthy and obedient,” the Sudanese were “like lazy, fierce, notorious children” who nonetheless showed fierce loyalty to their officers and remarkable courage.

Trial by Fire: Early Campaigns

The new army’s first major test came against Mahdist forces in Sudan. In 1888, a young Herbert Kitchener – then a major in the Egyptian cavalry – led a disastrous unauthorized raid against Osman Digna’s forces at Handub. Though wounded and defeated, Kitchener’s aggressiveness impressed his superiors, earning him promotion to colonel and appointment as deputy commander of Egyptian forces.

The army proved its worth at the Battle of Toski (August 3, 1889), where General Grenfell’s force of Egyptian and Sudanese battalions crushed a Mahdist army under Wad al-Nujumi. This victory demonstrated the transformation wrought by British training and leadership. As one historian noted, the once-derided Egyptian troops now fought with discipline and effectiveness that shocked their Mahdist opponents.

Kitchener Takes Command

In 1892, despite his controversial personality and rapid rise, the 42-year-old Kitchener became Sirdar (commander-in-chief) of the Egyptian army. Obsessed with avenging Gordon’s death at Khartoum, he chafed under political restrictions that prevented immediate action against the Mahdists. The situation changed in 1896 when Italy’s disastrous defeat at Adwa prompted British intervention in Sudan to protect Italian positions.

Kitchener meticulously prepared his campaign, combining military operations with infrastructure development. His most remarkable achievement was constructing a 225-mile railway across the Nubian Desert to supply his advance – an engineering marvel completed by July 1897 despite Mahdist attacks. This logistical backbone enabled successive victories:

– The capture of Dongola (September 1896)
– The Battle of Abu Hamed (August 1897)
– The occupation of Berber (September 1897)

The Road to Omdurman

The climactic Battle of Atbara (April 8, 1898) showcased the Egyptian army’s capabilities. Kitchener’s force of British, Egyptian and Sudanese troops stormed a fortified Mahdist position under Mahmud Ahmad. The Sudanese battalions particularly distinguished themselves, suffering heavy casualties but breaking the enemy defenses. Churchill described the aftermath: “Over 2,000 Ansar corpses lay in the zariba…while Anglo-Egyptian losses totaled just 80 dead.”

This victory cleared the path to Omdurman, where on September 2, 1898, Kitchener’s army faced the full might of the Khalifa’s forces. The battle demonstrated the brutal effectiveness of modern firepower against massed attacks:

– 51,000 Mahdist warriors attacked
– 10,000 were killed (compared to 48 British/Egyptian dead)
– Machine guns and artillery proved decisive

The Sudanese battalions again played a crucial role when MacDonald’s brigade held firm against a massive flank attack that could have routed the entire army.

Legacy and Impact

The Sudan campaigns transformed perceptions of Egyptian military capabilities. From being considered unreliable auxiliaries, Egyptian and Sudanese troops had become effective components of Britain’s imperial military system. Several key developments emerged from this transformation:

1. Professionalization: The establishment of proper training, logistics and officer education created a sustainable military structure.

2. Interethnic Dynamics: The effective integration of Sudanese troops created a model for colonial military recruitment that Britain would replicate elsewhere.

3. Technological Integration: Egyptian forces learned to combine modern weapons (machine guns, artillery) with traditional infantry tactics.

4. Imperial Collaboration: The campaigns demonstrated how British leadership could harness local manpower for imperial objectives.

The reformed Egyptian army became a template for other colonial forces, proving that with proper training and leadership, non-European troops could master modern warfare. This lesson would resonate through Britain’s future colonial conflicts and shape military development across the empire.

For Egypt itself, the campaigns had ambiguous consequences. While establishing military pride and capability, they also deepened British control. The Sudanese battalions in particular became a mainstay of British imperial forces, serving with distinction in later conflicts including both World Wars. Kitchener’s railway and logistical innovations left lasting infrastructure, while the brutal efficiency of his campaigns offered sobering lessons about the changing nature of warfare in the machine age.